https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2109-0378
Abstract
This study investigates linkages between volume change, pore fluid drainage, shear wave velocity, and temperature of soft clays using a thermal triaxial cell equipped with bender elements, a measurement approach that has not been explored widely in past thermo-mechanical studies. Two kaolinite specimens were consolidated mechanically to a normally consolidated state and then subjected to drained and undrained heating-cooling cycles, respectively. After cooling, the specimens were subjected to further mechanical consolidation to evaluate changes in apparent preconsolidation stress. Both specimens showed net contractive thermal strains after a heating-cooling cycle and overconsolidated behavior during mechanical compression immediately after cooling. The shear wave velocity increased during drained heating, but negligible changes were observed during drained cooling, indicating permanent hardening because of thermal consolidation during the heating-cooling cycle. The shear wave velocity decreased during undrained heating because of a reduction in effective stress associated with thermal pressurization of the pore fluid but subsequently increased when drainage was permitted at elevated temperature. The shear wave velocity increased slightly during undrained cooling but decreased when drainage was permitted at room temperature. Net increases in small-strain shear modulus of 17 and 11 % after heating-cooling cycles under drained and undrained (with drainage after reaching stable temperatures) conditions, respectively, provide further evidence to the potential of thermal soil improvement of normally consolidated clays. Transient changes in shear modulus also highlight the importance of considering drainage conditions and corresponding changes in effective stress state during heating-cooling cycles.
Issue Section:
Technical Papers
References
1.
Abuel-Naga
, H. M.
, Bergado
D. T.
, and Chaiprakaikeow
S.
. 2006
. “Innovative Thermal Technique for Enhancing the Performance of Prefabricated Vertical Drain during the Preloading Process
.” Geotextiles and Geomembranes
24
, no. 6
(December): 359
–370
. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2006.04.0032.
Abuel-Naga
, H. M.
, Bergado
D. T.
, Bouazza
A.
, and Ramana
G. V.
. 2007
. “Volume Change Behaviour of Saturated Clays under Drained Heating Conditions: Experimental Results and Constitutive Modeling
.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal
44
, no. 8
(August): 942
–956
. https://doi.org/10.1139/t07-0313.
Abuel-Naga
, H. M.
, Bergado
D. T.
, and Lim
B. F.
. 2007
. “Effect of Temperature on Shear Strength and Yielding Behavior of Soft Bangkok Clay
.” Soil and Foundation
47
, no. 3
(June): 423
–436
. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.47.4234.
Alsherif
, N. A.
and McCartney
J. S.
. 2015
. “Thermal Behaviour of Unsaturated Silt at High Suction Magnitudes
.” Géotechnique
65
, no. 9
(September): 703
–716
. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.14.P.0495.
ASTM International.
2019
. Standard Test Method for Determination of Shear Wave Velocity and Initial Shear Modulus in Soil Specimens Using Bender Elements
. ASTM D8295-19. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International
, approved November 1, 2019
. https://doi.org/10.1520/D8295-196.
Atkinson
, J. H.
2000
. “Non-linear Soil Stiffness in Routine Design
.” Géotechnique
50
, no. 5
(October): 487
–508
. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2000.50.5.4877.
Atkinson
, J. H.
and Sallfors
G.
. 1991
. “Experimental Determination of Soil Properties
.” In Proceedings of the 10th European Conference on Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering
, Vol. 3, 915
–956
. Boca Raton, FL
: CRC Press
.8.
Baldi
, G.
, Hueckel
T.
, and Pellegrini
R.
. 1988
. “Thermal Volume Changes of Mineral-Water System in Low-Porosity Clay Soils
.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal
25
, no. 4
(November): 807
–825
. https://doi.org/10.1139/t88-0899.
Bentil
, O. T.
and Zhou
C.
. 2022
. “Effects of Temperature and Thermal Cycles on the Elastic Shear Modulus of Saturated Clay
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
148
, no. 7
(July): 06022006. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.000282210.
Brandl
, H.
2006
. “Energy Foundations and Other Thermo-active Ground Structures
.” Geotechnique
56
, no. 2
(March): 81
–122
. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2006.56.2.8111.
Campanella
, R. G.
and Mitchell
J. K.
. 1968
. “Influence of Temperature Variations on Soil Behavior
.” Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division
94
, no. 3
(May): 709
–734
. https://doi.org/10.1061/JSFEAQ.000113612.
Cekerevac
, C.
and Laloui
L.
. 2004
. “Experimental Study of Thermal Effects on the Mechanical Behaviour of a Clay
.” International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics
28
, no. 3
(March): 209
–228
. https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.33213.
Cui
, Y. J.
, Sultan
N.
, and Delage
P.
. 2000
. “A Thermomechanical Model for Saturated Clays
.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal
37
, no. 3
(June): 607
–620
. https://doi.org/10.1139/t99-11114.
Dyvik
, R.
and Madshus
C.
. 1985
. Lab Measurements of Gmax Using Bender Elements, Report No. 161
. Oslo, Norway
: Norwegian Geotechnical Institute.
15.
Fam
, M.
and Santamarina
C.
. 1995
. “Study of Geoprocesses with Complementary Mechanical and Electromagnetic Wave Measurements in an Oedometer
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
18
, no. 3
(September): 307
–314
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10999J16.
Ghaaowd
, I.
and McCartney
J. S.
. 2022
. “Centrifuge Modeling Methodology for Energy Pile Pullout from Saturated Soft Clay
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
45
, no. 2
(March/April): 332
–354
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ2021006217.
Ghaaowd
, I.
, Takai
A.
, Katsumi
T.
, and McCartney
J. S.
. 2017
. “Pore Water Pressure Prediction for Undrained Heating of Soils
.” Environmental Geotechnics
4
, no. 2
(April): 70
–78
. https://doi.org/10.1680/jenge.15.0004118.
Ghaaowd
, I.
, McCartney
J. S.
, and Saboya
F.
. 2022
. “Centrifuge Modeling of Temperature Effects on the Pullout Capacity of Torpedo Piles in Soft Clay
.” Soils and Rocks
45
, no. 1
(January–March): e2022000822. https://doi.org/10.28927/SR.2022.00082219.
Ghayoomi
, M.
and McCartney
J. S.
. 2011
. “Measurement of Small-Strain Shear Moduli of Partially Saturated Sand during Infiltration in a Geotechnical Centrifuge
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
34
, no. 5
: 503
–513
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10360820.
Hardin
, B. O.
and Black
W. L.
. 1969
. “Closure to ‘Vibration Modulus of Normally Consolidated Clay.’
,” Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division
95
, no. 6
(November): 1531
–1537
. https://doi.org/10.1061/JSFEAQ.000136421.
Hardin
, B. O.
and Blandford
G. E.
. 1989
. “Elasticity of Particulate Materials
.” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering
115
, no. 6
(June): 788
–805
. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1989)115:6(788)22.
Hillel
, D.
1980
. Fundamentals of Soil Physics
. New York
: Academic Press
. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2009-0-03109-223.
Houston
, S. L.
, Houston
W. N.
, and Williams
N. D.
. 1985
. “Thermo-mechanical Behavior of Seafloor Sediments
.” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering
111
, no. 11
(November): 1249
–1263
. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1985)111:11(1249)24.
Hueckel
, T.
and Baldi
G.
. 1990
. “Thermoplasticity of Saturated Clays: Experimental Constitutive Study
.” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering
116
, no. 12
(December): 1778
–1796
. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1990)116:12(1778)25.
Hueckel
, T.
and Borsetto
M.
. 1990
. “Thermoplasticity of Saturated Soils and Shales: Constitutive Equations
.” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering
116
, no. 12
(December): 1765
–1777
. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1990)116:12(1765)26.
Ishihara
, K.
1996
. Soil Behaviour in Earthquake Geotechnics
. Oxford, UK
: Oxford University Press
.27.
Khosravi
, A.
and McCartney
J. S.
. 2012
. “Impact of Hydraulic Hysteresis on the Small-Strain Shear Modulus of Low Plasticity Soils
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
138
, no. 11
(November): 1326
–1333
. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.000071328.
Kuntiwattanakul
, P.
, Towhata
I.
, Ohishi
K.
, and Seko
I.
. 1995
. “Temperature Effects on Undrained Shear Characteristics of Clay
.” Soils and Foundations
35
, no. 1
(March): 147
–162
. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.35.14729.
Laloui
, L.
and Cekerevac
C.
. 2003
. “Thermo-plasticity of Clays: An Isotropic Yield Mechanism
.” Computers and Geotechnics
30
, no. 8
(December): 649
–660
. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2003.09.00130.
Laloui
, L.
, Nuth
M.
, and Vulliet
L.
. 2006
. “Experimental and Numerical Investigations of the Behaviour of a Heat Exchanger Pile
.” International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics
30
, no. 8
(July): 763
–781
. https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.49931.
Mair
, R. J.
1993
. “Unwin Memorial Lecture 1992: Developments in Geotechnical Engineering Research: Applications to Tunnels and Deep Excavations
.” Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Civil Engineering
97
, no. 1
(February): 27
–41
. https://doi.org/10.1680/icien.1993.2237832.
McCartney
, J. S.
and Khosravi
A.
. 2013
. “Field-Monitoring System for Suction and Temperature Profiles under Pavements
.” Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities
27
, no. 6
(December): 818
–825
. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.000036233.
Murphy
, K. D.
, McCartney
J. S.
, and Henry
K. S.
. 2015
. “Thermo-mechanical Response Tests on Energy Foundations with Different Heat Exchanger Configurations
.” Acta Geotechnica
10
, no. 2
(April): 179
–195
. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-013-0298-434.
Pennington
, D. S.
, Nash
D. F. T.
, and Lings
M. L.
. 2001
. “Horizontally Mounted Bender Elements for Measuring Anisotropic Shear Moduli in Triaxial Clay Specimens
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
24
, no. 2
(June): 133
–144
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ11333J35.
Pothiraksanon
, C.
, Bergado
D. T.
, and Abuel-Naga
H. M.
. 2010
. “Full-Scale Embankment Consolidation Test Using Prefabricated Vertical Thermal Drains
.” Soil and Foundation
50
, no. 5
(October): 599
–608
. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.50.59936.
Samarakoon
, R. A.
and McCartney
J. S.
. 2020
a. “Simulation of Prefabricated Thermal Drains in Soft Clay
.” In GeoAmericas 2020: Fourth Pan-American Conference on Geosynthetics
. https://web.archive.org/web/20230828131153/https://library.geosyntheticssociety.org/wp-content/uploads/resources/proceedings/122021/PPT-eposter-trab-aceito-0147-1.pdf37.
Samarakoon
, R. A.
and McCartney
J. S.
. 2020
b. “Effect of Drained Heating and Cooling on the Preconsolidation Stress of Saturated Normally Consolidated Clays
.” In Geo-Congress 2020: Foundations, Soil Improvement, and Erosion, 620–629
. Reston, VA
: American Society of Civil Engineers
. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784482780.06138.
Samarakoon
, R. A.
and McCartney
J. S.
. 2021
. “Performance of Prefabricated Thermal Drains in Soft Clay
.” In Geosynthetics Conference 2021
, edited by Beauregard
M.
and Nicks
J. E.
, 433
–444
. Red Hook, NY
: Curran Associates
.39.
Samarakoon
, R.
and McCartney
J. S.
. 2023
. “Simulation of Thermal Drains Using a New Constitutive Model for Thermal Volume Change of Normally Consolidated Clays
.” Computers and Geotechnics
153
(January): 105100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2022.10510040.
Samarakoon
, R.
, Ghaaowd
I.
, and McCartney
J. S.
. 2018
. “Impact of Drained Heating and Cooling on Undrained Shear Strength of Normally Consolidated Clay
.” In International Symposium on Energy Geotechnics: SEG 2018
, edited by Ferrari
A.
and Laloui
L.
, 243
–249
. Cham, Switzerland
: Springer
. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99670-7_3141.
Samarakoon
, R. A.
, Kreitzer
I. L.
, and McCartney
J. S.
. 2022
. “Impact of Initial Effective Stress on the Thermo-mechanical Behavior of Normally Consolidated Clay
.” Geomechanics for Energy and the Environment
32
(December): 100407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gete.2022.10040742.
Shirley
, D. J.
and Hampton
L. D.
. 1978
. “Shear-Wave Measurements in Laboratory Sediments
.” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
63
, no. 2
(February): 607
–613
. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.38176043.
Stewart
, M. A.
and McCartney
J. S.
. 2014
. “Centrifuge Modeling of Soil-Structure Interaction in Energy Foundations
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
140
, no. 4
(April): 04013044. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.000106144.
Uchaipichat
, A.
and Khalili
N.
. 2009
. “Experimental Investigation of Thermo-hydro-mechanical Behaviour of an Unsaturated Silt
.” Géotechnique
59
, no. 4
(May): 339
–353
. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2009.59.4.33945.
Vahedifard
, F.
, Thota
S. K.
, Cao
T. D.
, Samarakoon
R. A.
, and McCartney
J. S.
. 2020
. “A Temperature-Dependent Model for Small-Strain Shear Modulus of Unsaturated Soils
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
146
, no. 12
(December): 04020136. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.000240646.
Valle-Molina
, C.
and Stokoe
K. H.
. 2012
. “Seismic Measurements in Sand Specimens with Varying Degrees of Saturation Using Piezoelectric Transducers
.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal
49
, no. 6
(June): 671
–685
. https://doi.org/10.1139/t2012-03347.
Viggiani
, G.
and Atkinson
J. H.
. 1995
. “Interpretation of Bender Element Tests
.” Géotechnique
45
, no. 1
(March): 149
–154
. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1995.45.1.149
This content is only available via PDF.
All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced or copied, in whole or part, in any printed, mechanical, electronic, film, or other distribution and storage media, without the written consent of ASTM International.
You do not currently have access to this content.
