https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1511-2438
Abstract
A cyclic triaxial apparatus was modified to determine the dynamic and static properties of a residual soil at different degrees of saturation. The modification includes addition of bender elements, local displacement transducers (LDTs), and proximity sensors. Improvements were made to the LDT setup using 3D-printed hinges to reduce slippage of the LDT. The primary (P) and secondary (S) wave velocities and the damping ratio (ξ) were obtained from the bender element signals using time domain first arrival times and the Hilbert transform method, respectively. Results of the shear modulus normalized with small-strain shear modulus (G/Gmax) and ξ with shear strains were obtained, and they showed good agreement with similar soils in the literature. The Poisson’s ratio obtained from wave velocities, LDTs, and the proximity sensors shows a reasonable trend and value. The soil specimens were sheared to failure after the cyclic loading. Saturated specimens were sheared under the consolidated undrained condition, whereas unsaturated specimens were sheared under the constant water content condition. Results of effective shear-strength parameters (ϕ′ and c′) were observed to fall within the range of similar soils found in the literature. The unsaturated specimens’ ϕ were observed to be similar to the saturated specimens’ ϕ, and the cohesion intercept increased as degree of saturation decreased.
Issue Section:
Technical Papers
References
1.
ASTM International.
2020
. Standard Test Method for Consolidated Drained Triaxial Compression Test for Soils
. ASTM D7181-20. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International
, approved January 1, 2020
. https://doi.org/10.1520/D7181-202.
ASTM International.
2020
. Standard Test Method for Consolidated Undrained Triaxial Compression Test for Cohesive Soils
. ASTM D4767-11(2020). West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International
, approved April 1, 2020
. https://doi.org/10.1520/D4767-11R203.
ASTM International.
2020
. Standard Test Methods for the Determination of the Modulus and Damping Properties of Soils Using the Cyclic Triaxial Apparatus
(Withdrawn). ASTM D3999M-11e1. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International
.4.
Arulnathan
, R.
, Boulanger
R. W.
, and Riemer
M. F.
. 1998
. “Analysis of Bender Element Tests
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
21
, no. 2
(June): 120
–131
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10750J5.
Banerjee
, A.
, Puppala
A. J.
, and Hoyos
L. R.
. 2022
. “Liquefaction Assessment in Unsaturated Soils
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
148
, no. 9
(September): 04022067. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.00028516.
Biglari
, M.
, Mancuso
C.
, d’Onofrio
A.
, Jafari
M. K.
, and Shafiee
A.
. 2011
. “Modelling the Initial Shear Stiffness of Unsaturated Soils as a Function of the Coupled Effects of the Void Ratio and the Degree of Saturation
.” Computers and Geotechnics
38
, no. 5
(July): 709
–720
. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2011.04.0077.
Biglari
, M.
, Jafari
M. K.
, Shafiee
A.
, Mancuso
C.
, and d’Onofrio
A.
. 2011
. “Shear Modulus and Damping Ratio of Unsaturated Kaolin Measured by New Suction-Controlled Cyclic Triaxial Device
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
34
, no. 5
(September): 525
–536
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ1036358.
Cary
, C. E.
and Zapata
C. E.
. 2016
. “Pore Water Pressure Response of Soil Subjected to Dynamic Loading under Saturated and Unsaturated Conditions
.” International Journal of Geomechanics
16
, no. 6
(December): D4016004. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.00006429.
Cheng
, Z.
and Leong
E. C.
. 2018
. “Determination of Damping Ratios for Soils Using Bender Element Tests
.” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering
111
(August): 8
–13
. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.04.01610.
Chin
, F. K.
1970
. “Estimation of the Ultimate Load of Piles Not Carried to Failure
.” In Proceedings of the Second Southeast Asian Conference on Soil Engineering
, 81
–92
. Singapore: Southeast Asian Geotechnical Society
.11.
Chin
, F. K.
1971
. “Discussion of: ‘Pile Tests—Arkansas River Project,’ by C. I. Mansur and A. H. Hunter, Published in Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division 96, no. 5 (September 1970), https://doi.org/10.1061/JSFEAQ.000145
.” Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division
97
, no. 6
(June): 930
–932
. https://doi.org/10.1061/JSFEAQ.000162312.
Chin
, F. K.
and Vail
A. J.
. 1973
. “Behaviour of Piles in Alluvium
.” In Eighth International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
, 47
–52
. Moscow, Russia
: International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering
.13.
Cui
, Y.-J.
, Tang
A.-M.
, Marcial
D.
, Terpereau
J.-M.
, Marchadier
G.
, and Boulay
X.
. 2007
. “Use of a Differential Pressure Transducer for the Monitoring of Soil Volume Change in Cyclic Triaxial Test on Unsaturated Soils
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
30
, no. 3
(May): 227
–233
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10053914.
Dasari
, G. R.
, Bolton
M. D.
, Ng
C. W. W.
. 1995
. “Small Strain Measurement Using Modified LDTs
.” Technical Report CUED/D-SOILS/TR275
. Cambridge, UK
: Cambridge University Engineering Department
.15.
Dames and Moore.
1983
. Mass Rapid Transit System, Singapore: Detailed Geotechnical Study, Interpretative Report
. Singapore: Mass Rapid Transit Authority
.16.
Fredlund
, D. G.
and Xing
A.
. 1994
. “Equations for the Soil-Water Characteristic Curve
.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal
31
, no. 3
(August): 521
–532
. https://doi.org/10.1139/t94-06117.
Ghayoomi
, M.
, Suprunenko
G.
, and Mirshekari
M.
. 2017
. “Cyclic Triaxial Test to Measure Strain-Dependent Shear Modulus of Unsaturated Sand
.” International Journal of Geomechanics
17
, no. 9
(September): 04017043. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.000091718.
Goto
, S.
, Tatsuoka
F.
, Shibuya
S.
, Kim
Y.-S.
, and Sato
T.
. 1991
. “A Simple Gauge for Local Small Strain Measurements in the Laboratory
.” Soil and Foundation
31
, no. 1
(March): 169
–180
. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.31.16919.
Head
, K. H.
1998
. Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Volume 3: Effective Stress Tests
, 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ
: John Wiley & Sons
.20.
Ho
, D. Y. F.
and Fredlund
D. G.
. 1982
. “A Multi-stage Triaxial Test for Unsaturated Soils
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
5
, nos. 1–2
(March/June): 18
–25
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10795J21.
Hoque
, E.
and Tatsuoka
F.
. 2004
. “Triaxial Testing System for Measuring Loading-Rate Effects during Cyclic Tests of Sand
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
27
, no. 5
(September): 483
–495
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ1194122.
Hoque
, E.
, Sato
T.
, and Tatsuoka
F.
. 1997
. “Performance Evaluation of LDTs for Use in Triaxial Tests
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
20
, no. 2
(June): 149
–167
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10735J23.
Kokusho
, T.
1980
. “Cyclic Triaxial Test of Dynamic Soil Properties for Wide Strain Range
.” Soil and Foundations
20
, no. 2
(June): 45
–60
. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.20.2_4524.
Krahn
, J.
, Fredlund
D. G.
, and Klassen
M. J.
. 1989
. “Effect of Soil Suction on Slope Stability at Notch Hill
.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal
26
, no. 2
(May): 269
–278
. https://doi.org/10.1139/t89-03625.
Kung
, G. T. C.
2007
. “Equipment and Testing Procedures for Small Strain Triaxial Tests
.” Journal of the Chinese Institute of Engineers
30
, no. 4
: 579
–591
. https://doi.org/10.1080/02533839.2007.967128726.
Leong
, E. C.
and Cheng
Z. Y.
. 2016
. “Effects of Confining Pressure and Degree of Saturation on Wave Velocities of Soils
.” International Journal of Geomechanics
16
, no. 6
(December): D4016013. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.000072727.
Leong
, E. C.
, Rahardjo
H.
, and Tang
S. K.
. 2003
. “Characterization and Engineering Properties of Singapore Residual Soils
.” In Characterisation and Engineering Properties of Natural Soils
, edited by Tan
T. S.
, Phoon
K. K.
, Hight
D. W.
, and Leroueil
S.
, 1279
–1304
. Lisse, the Netherlands
: A. A. Balkema
.28.
Leong
, E. C.
, Cahyadi
J.
, and Rahardjo
H.
. 2009
. “Measuring Shear and Compression Velocities of Soil Using Bender–Extender Elements
.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal
46
, no. 7
(July): 792
–812
. https://doi.org/10.1139/T09-02629.
Leong
, E. C.
, Yeo
S. H.
, and Rahardjo
H.
. 2005
. “Measuring Shear Wave Velocity Using Bender Elements
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
28
, no. 5
(September): 488
–498
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ1219630.
Leong
, E. C.
, Nyunt
T. T.
, and Low
K. S.
. 2011
. “Local Displacement Transducer with Anderson Loop
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
34
, no. 6
(November): 676
–684
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10340131.
Nambiar
, M. R. M.
, Rao
G. V.
, and Gulhati
S. K.
. 1985
. “Multistage Triaxial Testing: A Rational Procedure
.” In Strength Testing of Marine Sediments: Laboratory and In-Situ Measurements
, edited by Chaney
R. C.
and Demars
K. R.
, 274
–293
. West Conshohocken, PA
: ASTM International
. https://doi.org/10.1520/STP36340S32.
Nyunt
, T. T.
“Strength and Stiffness Characteristics of Unsaturated Soils
.” PhD diss., Nanyang Technological University
, 2012
.33.
Perbawa
, A.
, Gramajo
E.
, Finkbeiner
T.
, and Santamarina
J. C.
. 2021
. “Rock Triaxial Tests: Global Deformation vs Local Strain Measurements—Implications
.” Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering
54
, no. 7
(July): 3527
–3540
. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-021-02389-z34.
Poh
, K. B.
, Chua
N. L.
, and Tan
S. B.
. 1985
. “Residual Granite Soil of Singapore
.” In Proceedings of Eighth Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference
, 3-1–3-9. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Institution of Engineers, Malaysia
.35.
Rahardjo
, H.
2000
. Rainfall-Induced Slope Failures, NSTB 17/6/16 Main Report
. Singapore: Nanyang Technological University.36.
Rahardjo
, H.
, Satyanaga
A.
, Leong
E.-C.
, Ng
Y. S.
, and Pang
H. T. C.
. 2012
. “Variability of Residual Soil Properties
.” Engineering Geology
141–142
(July): 124
–140
. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2012.05.00937.
Rahardjo
, H.
, Ong
B. H.
, and Leong
E. C.
. 2004
. “Shear Strength of a Compacted Residual Soil from Consolidated Drained and Constant Water Content Triaxial Tests
.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal
41
, no. 3
(June): 421
–436
. https://doi.org/10.1139/t03-09338.
Rahardjo
, H.
, Lim
T. T.
, Chang
M. F.
, and Fredlund
D. G.
. 1995
. “Shear-Strength Characteristics of a Residual Soil
.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal
32
, no. 1
(February): 60
–77
. https://doi.org/10.1139/t95-00539.
Ravi Sharma
, M. S.
, Baxter
C. D. P.
, Moran
K.
, Vaziri
H.
, and Narayanasamy
R.
. 2011
. “Strength of Weakly Cemented Sands from Drained Multistage Triaxial Tests
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
137
, no. 12
(December): 1202
–1210
. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.000053740.
Sanchez-Salinero
, I.
, Roesset
J. M.
, and Stokoe
K. H.
. 1986
. Analytical Studies of Body Wave Propagation and Attenuation, Geotechnical Engineering Report GR86-15
. Austin, TX
: University of Texas
.41.
Satiija
, B. S.
and Gulhati
S. K.
. 1979
. “Strain Rate for Shearing Testing of Unsaturated Soil
.” In Proceedings of the Sixth Asian Regional Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundations Engineering
, vol. 1, 83
–86
. Singapore
: Southeast Asian Geotechnical Society
.42.
Schoenemann
, M. R.
and Pyles
M. R.
. 1988
. “Stress Path Considerations in Multistage Triaxial Testing
.” In Advanced Triaxial Testing of Soil and Rock
, edited by Donaghe
R. T.
, Chaney
R. C.
, and Silver
M. L.
, 732
–739
. West Conshohocken, PA
: ASTM International
. https://doi.org/10.1520/STP29111S43.
Scholey
, G. K.
, Frost
J. D.
, Lo Presti
D. C. F.
, and Jamiolkowski
M.
. 1995
. “A Review of Instrumentation for Measuring Small Strains during Triaxial Testing of Soil Specimens
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
18
, no. 2
(June): 137
–156
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10318J44.
Sridharan
, A.
and Narasimha Rao
S.
. 1972
. “A New Approach to Multistage Triaxial Test
.” Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division
98
, no. 11
(November): 1279
–1286
. https://doi.org/10.1061/JSFEAQ.000181345.
Tatsuoka
, F.
, Teachavorasinskun
S.
, Dong
J.
, Kohata
Y.
, and Sato
T.
. 1994
. “Importance of Measuring Local Strains in Cyclic Triaxial Tests on Granular Materials
.” In Dynamic Geotechnical Testing II
, edited by Ebelhar
R. J.
, Drnevich
V. P.
, and Kutter
B. L.
, 288
–302
. West Conshohocken, PA
: ASTM International
. https://doi.org/10.1520/STP13220S46.
Tan
, S. B.
, Tan
S. L.
, Lim
T. L.
, and Yang
K. S.
. 1987
. “Landslide Problems and Their Control in Singapore
.” In Proceedings of Ninth Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference
, vol. 1, 25
–36
. Bangkok, Thailand
: Southeast Asian Geotechnical Society
.47.
Taylor
, D. W.
1950
. “A Triaxial Shear Investigation on a Partially Saturated Soil
.” In Triaxial Testing of Soils and Bituminous Mixtures
, 180
–191
. West Conshohocken, PA
: ASTM International
. https://doi.org/https:///10.1520/STP48414S48.
Tou
, J. H.
“Cyclic Triaxial Test Apparatus for Evaluating Dynamic Properties of Residual Soils
.” Master’s thesis, Nanyang Technological University
, 2003
.49.
Vucetic
, M.
and Dobry
R.
. 1991
. “Effect of Soil Plasticity on Cyclic Response
.” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering
117
, no. 1
(January): 89
–107
. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1991)117:1(89)50.
Yang
, K. S.
and Tang
S. K.
. 1997
. “Stabilising the Slope of Bukit Gombak
.” In Proceedings of 3YGEC
, 589
–605
. Singapore
: s.n
.51.
Yamashita
, S.
, Kohata
Y.
, Kawaguchi
T.
, and Shibuya
S.
. 2001
. “International Round-Robin Test Organized by TC-29
.” In Advanced Laboratory Stress-Strain Testing of Geomaterials
, 1st ed., edited by Kuwano
R.
, 65
–110
. London
: Routledge
.52.
Yimsiri
, S.
and Soga
K.
. 2002
. “A Review of Local Strain Measurement Systems for Triaxial Testing of Soils
.” Journal of the Southeast Asian Geotechnical Society
33
, no. 1
(April): 41
–52
.53.
Yimsiri
, S.
, Soga
K.
, and Chandler
S. G.
. 2005
. “Cantilever-Type Local Deformation Transducer for Local Axial Strain Measurement in Triaxial Test
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
28
, no. 5
(September): 445
–451
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ1143254.
Yokota
, K.
and Konno
M.
. 1980
. “Dynamic Poisson’s Ratio of Soil
.” In Proceedings of the Seventh World Conference on Earthquake Engineering
, vol. 3, 475
–478
. Istanbul, Turkey
: Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
.55.
Winn
, K.
, Rahardjo
H.
, and Seh
C. P.
. 2001
. “Characterisation of Residual Soils in Singapore
.” Geotechnical Engineering
23
, no. 1
: 1
–14
.56.
Zhou
, Y.
2001
. “Engineering Geology and Rock Mass Properties of the Bukit Timah Granite
.” In Proceedings of Underground Singapore 2001
, 308
–314
. Singapore
: s.n
.
This content is only available via PDF.
All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced or copied, in whole or part, in any printed, mechanical, electronic, film, or other distribution and storage media, without the written consent of ASTM International.
You do not currently have access to this content.
