Designing smart water (SW) by optimizing the chemical composition of injected brine is a promising low-cost technique that has been developed for both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs for several decades. In this study, the impact of SW flooding during tertiary oil recovery phase was investigated by core flooding analysis of pure limestone carbonate rocks. Increasing the sulfate ion concentration by using CaSO4 and MgSO4 of NaCl concentration and finally reducing the total salinity were the main manipulations performed to optimize SW. The main objective of this research is to compare active cations including Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the presence of sulfate ions (SO42−) with regard to their efficiency in the enhancement of oil production during SW flooding of carbonate cores. The results revealed a 14.5% increase in the recovery factor by CaSO4 proving its greater effectiveness compared to MgSO4, which led to an 11.5% production enhancement. It was also realized that low-salinity water flooding (LSWF) did not lead to a significant positive effect as it contributed less than 2% in the tertiary stage.

Issue Section:
Petroleum Engineering
Keywords:
Oil reservoirs, Gas reservoirs
Topics:
Floods, Ions, Petroleum extraction, Reservoirs, Rocks, Water

References

1.
Shariatpanahi
,
S. F.
,
Strand
,
S.
, and
Austad
,
T.
,
2010
, “
Evaluation of Water-Based Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) by Wettability Alteration in a Low-Permeable Fractured Limestone Oil Reservoir
,”
Energy Fuels
,
24
(
11
), pp.
5997
–
6008
.
2.
Strand
,
S.
,
Høgnesen
,
E. J.
, and
Austad
,
T.
,
2006
, “
Wettability Alteration of Carbonates—Effects of Potential Determining Ions (Ca2+ and SO42−⁠) and Temperature
,”
Colloids Surf. A
,
275
(
1
), pp.
1
–
10
.
3.
Mahmoud
,
M.
, and
Nasr-El-Din
,
H.
,
2014
, “
Challenges During Shallow and Deep Carbonate Reservoirs Stimulation
,”
ASME J. Energy Resour. Technol.
,
137
(
1
), p.
012902
.
4.
Barati-Harooni
,
A.
,
Najafi-Marghmaleki
,
A.
,
Moein Hosseini
,
S.
, and
Moradi
,
S.
,
2017
, “
Experimental Investigation of Dynamic Adsorption-Desorption of New Nonionic Surfactant on Carbonate Rock: Application to Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)
,”
ASME J. Energy Resour. Technol.
,
139
(
4
), p.
042202
.
5.
Alotaibi
,
M. B.
,
Nasralla
,
R. A.
, and
Nasr-El-Din
,
H. A.
,
2010
, “
Wettability Challenges in Carbonate Reservoirs
,”
SPE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium
, Tulsa, OK, Apr. 24–28,
SPE
Paper No. SPE-129972-MS.
6.
Yousef
,
A. A.
,
Al-Salehsalah
,
S. H.
, and
Al-Jawfi
,
M. S.
,
2011
, “
New Recovery Method for Carbonate Reservoirs Through Tuning the Injection Water Salinity: Smart Waterflooding
,”
SPE EUROPEC/EAGE Annual Conference and Exhibition
, Vienna, Austria, May 23–26,
SPE
Paper No. SPE-143550-MS.
7.
Yue
,
W.
, and
Wang
,
J. Y.
,
2015
, “
Feasibility of Waterflooding for a Carbonate Oil Field Through Whole-Field Simulation Studies
,”
ASME J. Energy Resour. Technol.
,
137
(
6
), p.
064501
.
8.
Mamghaderi
,
A.
,
Bastami
,
A.
, and
Pourafshary
,
P.
,
2012
, “
Optimization of Waterflooding Performance in a Layered Reservoir Using a Combination of Capacitance-Resistive Model and Genetic Algorithm Method
,”
ASME J. Energy Resour. Technol.
,
135
(
1
), p.
013102
.
9.
Idowu
,
J.
,
Somerville
,
J.
,
Adebari
,
D.
, and
Meshioye
,
O.
,
2011
, “
Effect of Salinity Changes of the Injected Water on Waterflooding Performance in Carbonate Reservoirs
,”
Nigeria Annual International Conference and Exhibition
, Abuja, Nigeria, July 30–Aug. 3,
SPE
Paper No. SPE-150816-MS.
10.
Nasralla
,
R. A.
, and
Nasr-El-Din
,
H. A.
,
2011
, “
Coreflood Study of Low Salinity Water Injection in Sandstone Reservoirs,” SPE/DGS Saudi Arabia Section Technical Symposium and Exhibition
,” Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia, May 15–18,
SPE
Paper No. SPE-149077-MS.
11.
Yousef
,
A. A.
,
Al-Saleh
,
S.
, and
Al-Jawfi
,
M. S.
,
2011
, “
Smart Waterflooding for Carbonate Reservoirs: Salinity and Role of Ions
,”
SPE Middle East Oil and Gas Show and Conference
, Manama, Bahrain, Sept. 25–28,
SPE
Paper No. SPE-141082-MS.
12.
Fathi
,
S. J.
,
Austad
,
T.
, and
Strand
,
S.
,
2011
, “
Water-Based Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) by ‘Smart Water’: Optimal Ionic Composition for EOR in Carbonates
,”
Energy Fuels
,
25
(
11
), pp.
5173
–
5179
.
13.
Karabakal
,
U.
, and
Bagci
,
S.
,
2004
, “
Determination of Wettability and Its Effect on Waterflood Performance in Limestone Medium
,”
Energy Fuels
,
18
(
2
), pp.
438
–
449
.
14.
Zhang
,
P.
, and
Austad
,
T.
,
2006
, “
Wettability and Oil Recovery From Carbonates: Effects of Temperature and Potential Determining Ions
,”
Colloids Surf. A
,
279
(
1
), pp.
179
–
187
.
15.
Austad
,
T.
,
2013
, “
Water-Based EOR in Carbonates and Sandstones: New Chemical Understanding of the EOR Potential Using Smart Water
,”
Enhanced Oil Recovery Field Case Studies
, Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp.
301
–
335
.
16.
Hughes
,
R. V.
, and
Pfister
,
R. J.
,
1947
, “
Advantages of Brines in Secondary Recovery of Petroleum by Water-Flooding
,”
Trans. AIME
,
170
(
1
), pp.
187
–
201
.
17.
Suat
,
B.
,
Kok
,
M. V.
, and
Turksoy
,
U.
,
2001
, “
Effect of Brine Composition and Alkaline Fluid on the Permeability Damage of Limestone Reservoirs
,”
SPE International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry
, Houston, TX, Feb. 13–16,
SPE
Paper No. SPE-65394-MS.
18.
Hognesen
,
E. J.
,
Strand
,
S.
, and
Austad
,
T.
,
2005
, “
Waterflooding of Preferential Oil-Wet Carbonates: Oil Recovery Related to Reservoir Temperature and Brine Composition
,”
SPE Europec/EAGE Annual Conference
, Madrid, Spain, June 13–16,
SPE
Paper No. SPE-94166-MS.
19.
Strand
,
S.
,
Standnes
,
D. C.
, and
Austad
,
T.
,
2003
, “
Spontaneous Imbibition of Aqueous Surfactant Solutions Into Neutral to Oil-Wet Carbonate Cores: Effects of Brine Salinity and Composition
,”
Energy Fuels
,
17
(
5
), pp.
1133
–
1144
.
20.
Yassin
,
M. R.
,
Ayatollahi
,
S.
,
Rostami
,
B.
,
Hassani
,
K.
, and
Taghikhani
,
V.
,
2014
, “
Micro-Emulsion Phase Behavior of a Cationic Surfactant at Intermediate Interfacial Tension in Sandstone and Carbonate Rocks
,”
ASME J. Energy Resour. Technol.
,
137
(
1
), p.
012905
.
21.
Zhang
,
P.
,
Tweheyo
,
M. T.
, and
Austad
,
T.
,
2006
, “
Wettability and Improved Oil Recovery in Chalk: The Effect of Calcium in the Presence of Sulfate
,”
Energy Fuels
,
20
(
5
), pp.
2056
–
2062
.
22.
Gupta
,
R.
,
Smith
,
G. G.
,
Hu
,
L.
,
Willingham
,
T.
,
Lo Cascio
,
M.
,
Shyeh
,
J. J.
, and
Harris
,
C. R.
,
2011
, “
Enhanced Waterflood for Carbonate Reservoirs-Impact of Injection Water Composition
,”
SPE Middle East Oil and Gas Show and Conference
, Manama, Bahrain, Sept. 25–28,
SPE
Paper No. SPE-142668-MS.
23.
Zhang
,
P.
,
Tweheyo
,
M. T.
, and
Austad
,
T.
,
2007
, “
Wettability Alteration and Improved Oil Recovery by Spontaneous Imbibition of Seawater Into Chalk: Impact of the Potential Determining Ions Ca2+, Mg2+, and SO42−
,”
Colloids Surf. A
,
301
(
1
), pp.
199
–
208
.
24.
Yousef
,
A. A.
,
Al-Saleh
,
S.
,
Al-Kaabi
,
A. U.
, and
Al-Jawfi
,
M. S.
,
2010
, “
Laboratory Investigation of Novel Oil Recovery Method for Carbonate Reservoirs
,”
Canadian Unconventional Resources and International Petroleum Conference
, Calgary, AB, Canada, Oct. 19–21,
SPE
Paper No. SPE-137634-MS.
25.
Al-Adasani
,
A.
,
Bai
,
B.
, and
Wu
,
Y. S.
,
2012
, “
Investigating Low Salinity Waterflooding Recovery Mechanisms in Carbonate Reservoirs
,”
SPE EOR Conference at Oil and Gas West Asia
, Muscat, Oman, Apr. 16–18,
SPE
Paper No. SPE-155560-MS.
26.
Suman
,
Y.
,
Shirif
,
E.
,
Ibrahim
,
H.
, and
Ala-Ktiwi
,
A.
,
2014
, “
Evaluation of Low Saline ‘Smart Water’ Enhanced Oil Recovery in Light Oil Reservoirs
,”
World J. Eng. Technol.
,
2
(
1
), pp.
13
–
22
.
27.
Fathi
,
S. J.
,
Austad
,
T.
, and
Strand
,
S.
,
2012
, “
Water-Based Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) by ‘Smart Water’ in Carbonate Reservoirs
,”
SPE EOR Conference at Oil and Gas West Asia
, Muscat, Oman, Apr. 16–18,
SPE
Paper No. SPE-154570-MS.
28.
Al Shalabi
,
E. W.
,
Sepehrnoori
,
K.
, and
Delshad
,
M.
,
2014
, “
Mechanisms Behind Low Salinity Water Injection in Carbonate Reservoirs
,”
Fuel
,
121
, pp.
11
–
19
.
29.
Agbalaka
,
C. C.
,
Dandekar
,
A. Y.
,
Patil
,
S. L.
,
Khataniar
,
S.
, and
Hemsath
,
J. R.
,
2009
, “
Coreflooding Studies to Evaluate the Impact of Salinity and Wettability on Oil Recovery Efficiency
,”
Transp. Porous Media
,
76
(
1
), pp.
77
–
94
.
30.
Alotaibi
,
M. B.
, and
Nasr-El-Din
,
H. A.
,
2009
, “
Chemistry of Injection Water and Its Impact on Oil Recovery in Carbonate and Clastics Formations
,”
SPE International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry
, The Woodlands, TX, Apr. 20–22,
SPE
Paper No. SPE-121565-MS.
31.
Austad
,
T.
,
Shariatpanahi
,
S. F.
,
Strand
,
S.
,
Black
,
C. J. J.
, and
Webb
,
K. J.
,
2011
, “
Conditions for a Low-Salinity Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Effect in Carbonate Oil Reservoirs
,”
Energy Fuels
,
26
(
1
), pp.
569
–
575
.
32.
Austad
,
T.
,
2010
, “
Enhanced Oil Recovery: Potential by ‘Smart Water’ From Carbonates and Sandstones
,”
Ph.D. thesis
, University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway.http://www.irangi.org/Statistics/toraustadtilatvhjemmeside.pdf
33.
Sohal
,
M.
,
Thyne
,
G.
, and
Søgaard
,
E.
,
2016
, “
Review of Recovery Mechanisms of Ionically Modified Waterflood in Carbonate Reservoirs
,”
Energy Fuels
,
30
(3), pp. 1904–1914.
34.
Nasralla
,
R. A.
, and
Nasr-El-Din
,
H. A.
,
2011
, “
Impact of Electrical Surface Charges and Cation Exchange on Oil Recovery by Low Salinity Water
,”
SPE Asia Pacific Oil and Gas Conference and Exhibition
, Jakarta, Indonesia, Sept. 20–22,
SPE
Paper No. SPE-147937-MS.
35.
Sorbie
,
K. S.
, and
Collins
,
I.
,
2010
, “
A Proposed Pore-Scale Mechanism for How Low Salinity Waterflooding Works
,”
SPE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium
, Tulsa, OK, Apr. 24–28,
SPE
Paper No. SPE-129833-MS.
36.
Vledder
,
P.
,
Gonzalez
,
I. E.
,
Carrera Fonseca
,
J. C.
,
Wells
,
T.
, and
Ligthelm
,
D. J.
,
2010
, “
Low Salinity Water Flooding: Proof of Wettability Alteration on a Field Wide Scale
,”
SPE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium
, Tulsa, OK, Apr. 24–28,
SPE
Paper No. SPE-129564-MS.
37.
Zahid
,
A.
,
Stenby
,
E. H.
, and
Shapiro
,
A. A.
,
2010
, “
Improved Oil Recovery in Chalk: Wettability Alteration or Something Else?
,”
SPE EUROPEC/EAGE Annual Conference and Exhibition
, Barcelona, Spain, June 14–17,
SPE
Paper No. SPE-131300-MS.
Copyright © 2017 by ASME
You do not currently have access to this content.