https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1918-5450
Abstract
This study uses neutron radiography to evaluate specimen preparation and test parameters that impact the depth of water penetration in concrete tested under water pressure. First, the impact of the boundary conditions (i.e., the dissipation of pressure that may build up at the lower side of the specimen) on the water penetration throughout the specimen depth was studied. Second, the impact of predrying the specimens (at 65°C) was examined. Third, the depth of water penetration is often measured by splitting the specimen at the end of the permeability test. The use of visual assessment to quantify the depth of water penetration was compared with neutron radiography measurements to determine the accuracy of visual inspection. It was concluded that care should be taken while designing the permeability apparatus to allow pressure dissipation at the lower section of the specimen. The predrying of the specimens at 65°C significantly impacts the permeability and microstructure of the concrete specimens. Finally, water can be seen by the eye when it fills voids with a pore radius greater than 46 nm (i.e., a relative humidity higher than 98.2 ± 0.5 % range, in concrete specimens with a water-to-cement ratio of 0.42 and an air content of 2.5 % content).
Issue Section:
Technical Papers
References
1.
Weiss
W. J.
, “Concrete Pavement Joint Durability: A Sorption-Based Model for Saturation, the Role of Distributed Cracking, and Calcium Oxychloride Formation
,” in CONCREEP 10: Mechanics and Physics of Creep, Shrinkage, and Durability of Concrete and Concrete Structures
, ed. Hellmich
C.
, Pichler
B.
, and Kollegger
J.
(Reston, VA
: American Society of Civil Engineers
, 2015
), 211
–218
, https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784479346.0252.
Mackechnie
J. R.
and Alexander
M. G.
, “Using Durability to Enhance Concrete Sustainability
,” Journal of Green Building
4
, no. 3
(2009
): 52
–60
.3.
Mehta
P. K.
, “Reducing the Environmental Impact of Concrete
,” Concrete International
23
, no. 10
(2001
): 61
–66
.4.
American Society of Civil Engineers
2017 Infrastructure Report Card: A Comprehensive Assessment of America’s Infrastructure
(Reston, VA
: American Society of Civil Engineers
, 2017
).5.
Claisse
P. A.
, “Transport Properties of Concrete
,” Concrete International
27
, no. 1
(2005
): 43
–48
.6.
ACI Committee 201 “
Guide to Durable Concrete
,” ACI Journal Proceedings
74
, no. 12
(1977
): 573
–581
, https://doi.org/10.14359/110477.
Weiss
J.
, Relating Transport Properties to Performance in Concrete Pavements, Federal Highway Administration Pooled Fund Study TPF-5(179)
(Washington, DC
: Federal Highway Administration
, 2014
).8.
Hearn
N.
, Detwiler
R. J.
, and Sframeli
C.
, “Water Permeability and Microstructure of Three Old Concretes
,” Cement and Concrete Research
24
, no. 4
(1994
): 633
–640
, https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(94)90187-29.
Chini
A. R.
, Muszynski
L. C.
, and Hicks
J. K.
, Determination of Acceptance Permeability Characteristics for Performance-Related Specifications for Portland Cement Concrete
(Tallahassee, FL
: Florida Department of Transportation
, 2003
).10.
Bentz
D. P.
, Clifton
J. R.
, Ferraris
C. F.
, Garboczi
E. J.
, and Torrents
J. M.
, Transport Properties and Durability of Concrete: Literature Review and Research Plan, NIST Interagency/Internal Report (NISTIR) 6395
(Gaithersburg, MD
: National Institute of Standards and Technology
, 1999
).11.
Qiao
C.
, Ni
W.
, and Weiss
J.
, “Transport due to Diffusion, Drying, and Wicking in Concrete Containing a Shrinkage-Reducing Admixture
,” Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
29
, no. 9
(September 2017
): 04017146, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.000198312.
Aldred
J. M.
, “Water Transport due to Wick Action through Concrete
” (PhD diss., Curtin University of Technology
, 2008
).13.
Ghasemzadeh
F.
, Rashetnia
R.
, Smyl
D.
, and Pour-Ghaz
M.
, “A Comparison of Methods to Evaluate Mass Transport in Damaged Mortar
,” Cement and Concrete Composites
70
(July 2016
): 119
–129
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2016.03.00714.
Castro
J.
, Spragg
R.
, Compare
P.
, and Weiss
W. J.
, “Portland Cement Concrete Pavement Performance Relative to Permeability
,” Portland Cement Concrete Pavement Performance Relative to Permeability, JTRP Rep. SPR-3093
(West Lafayette, IN: Indiana Department of Transportation
, 2010
).15.
Castro
J.
, Bentz
D.
, and Weiss
J.
, “Effect of Sample Conditioning on the Water Absorption of Concrete
,” Cement and Concrete Composites
33
, no. 8
(September 2011
): 805
–813
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2011.05.00716.
Lucero
C. L.
, Bentz
D. P.
, Hussey
D. S.
, Jacobson
D. L.
, and Weiss
W. J.
, “Using Neutron Radiography to Quantify Water Transport and the Degree of Saturation in Entrained Air Cement Based Mortar
,” Physics Procedia
69
(2015
): 542
–550
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phpro.2015.07.07717.
Weiss
J.
, Geiker
M. R.
, and Hansen
K. K.
, “Using X-ray Transmission/Attenuation to Quantify Fluid Absorption in Cracked Concrete
,” International Journal of Materials and Structural Integrity
9
, nos. 1–3
(August 2015
): 3
–20
, https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMSI.2015.07110718.
Garboczi
E. J.
, “Permeability, Diffusivity, and Microstructural Parameters: A Critical Review
,” Cement and Concrete Research
20
, no. 4
(July 1990
): 591
–601
, https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(90)90101-319.
Standard Method of Test for Resistance of Concrete to Chloride Ion Penetration
, AASHTO-T 259 (Washington, DC: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
, 2002
).20.
Standard Test Method for Determining the Apparent Chloride Diffusion Coefficient of Cementitious Mixtures by Bulk Diffusion
, ASTM C1556-11a (West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International
, approved December 15, 2011
), https://doi.org/10.1520/C1556-2221.
Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration
, ASTM C1202-17 (West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International
, approved June 15, 2017
), https://doi.org/10.1520/C1202-22E0122.
Standard Test Method for Measurement of Rate of Absorption of Water by Hydraulic-Cement Concretes
, ASTM C1585-20 (West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International
, approved September 1, 2020
), https://doi.org/10.1520/C1585-2023.
Standard Method of Test for Surface Resistivity Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration
, AASHTO T 358-21(2021) (Washington, DC: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
, 2021
).24.
Fagerlund
G.
, The Long Time Water Absorption in the Air-Pore Structure of Concrete, Rapport TVBM-3051
(Lund, Sweden
: Lund University
, 1993
).25.
Henkensiefken
R.
, Castro
J.
, Bentz
D.
, Nantung
T.
, and Weiss
J.
, “Water Absorption in Internally Cured Mortar Made with Water-Filled Lightweight Aggregate
,” Cement and Concrete Research
39
, no. 10
(October 2009
): 883
–892
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2009.06.00926.
Bažant
Z. P.
and Najjar
L. J.
, “Drying of Concrete as a Nonlinear Diffusion Problem
,” Cement and Concrete Research
1
, no. 5
(September 1971
): 461
–473
, https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(71)90054-827.
Hansen
W.
, “Drying Shrinkage Mechanisms in Portland Cement Paste
,” Journal of the American Ceramic Society
70
, no. 5
(May 1987
): 323
–328
, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1151-2916.1987.tb05002.x28.
Ghantous
R. M.
, Valadez-Carranza
Y.
, Reese
S. R.
, and Weiss
W. J.
, “Drying Behavior of 3D Printed Cementitious Pastes Containing Cellulose Nanocrystals
,” CEMENT
9
(September 2022
): 100035, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cement.2022.10003529.
Gjørv
O. E.
and Vennesland
Ø.
, “Diffusion of Chloride Ions from Seawater into Concrete
,” Cement and Concrete Research
9
, no. 2
(March 1979
): 229
–238
, https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(79)90029-230.
Page
C. L.
, Short
N. R.
, and El Tarras
A.
, “Diffusion of Chloride Ions in Hardened Cement Pastes
,” Cement and Concrete Research
11
, no. 3
(May 1981
): 395
–406
, https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(81)90111-331.
Atkinson
A.
and Nickerson
A. K.
, “The Diffusion of Ions through Water-Saturated Cement
,” Journal of Materials Science
19
, no. 9
(September 1984
): 3068
–3078
, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF0102698632.
Meletiou
C. A.
, Tia
M.
, and Bloomquist
D.
, “Development of a Field Permeability Test Apparatus and Method for Concrete
,” ACI Materials Journal
89
, no. 1
(1993
): 83
–89
, https://doi.org/10.14359/124933.
Zhang
Z.
, Thiery
M.
, and Baroghel-Bouny
V.
, “Investigation of Moisture Transport Properties of Cementitious Materials
,” Cement and Concrete Research
89
(November 2016
): 257
–268
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2016.08.01334.
El-Dieb
A. S.
and Hooton
R. D.
, “Water-Permeability Measurement of High Performance Concrete Using a High-Pressure Triaxial Cell
,” Cement and Concrete Research
25
, no. 6
(August 1995
): 1199
–1208
, https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(95)00112-P35.
Boulin
P. F.
, Bretonnier
P.
, Gland
N.
, and Lombard
J. M.
, “Contribution of the Steady State Method to Water Permeability Measurement in Very Low Permeability Porous Media
,” Oil & Gas Science and Technology – Revue d’IFP Energies nouvelles
67
, no. 3
(May–June 2012
): 387
–401
, https://doi.org/10.2516/ogst/201116936.
Standard Test Method for Water Permeability of Concrete
, CRD-C48-92 (Washington, DC: US Army Corps of Engineers
, 1992
).37.
Standard Test Method for Water Permeability of Concrete Using Triaxial Cell
, CRD-C163-92 (Washington, DC: US Army Corps of Engineers
, 1992
).38.
Method of Test for Permeability of Cement Mortar and Concrete
, IS: 3085-1965 (New Delhi, India: Bureau of Indian Standards
, 1965
).39.
Testing Concrete: Testing of Hardened Concrete
, DIN 1048-5 (Berlin: German Institute for Standardization
, 1991
).40.
Testing Hardened Concrete—Part 8: Depth of Penetration of Water under Pressure
, BS EN 12390-8:2009 (London: British Standards Institution
, 2009
).41.
Milla
J.
, Cavalline
T. L.
, Rupnow
T. D.
, Melugiri-Shankaramurthy
B.
, Lomboy
G.
, and Wang
K.
, “Methods of Test for Concrete Permeability: A Critical Review
,” Advances in Civil Engineering Materials
10
, no. 1
(2021
): 172
–209
, https://doi.org/10.1520/ACEM2020006742.
Hooton
R. D.
, “What Is Needed in a Permeability Test for Evaluation of Concrete Quality
,” MRS Online Proceedings Library
137
, no. 1
(December 1988
): 141
–149
, https://doi.org/10.1557/PROC-137-14143.
Scherer
G. W.
, “Measuring Permeability of Rigid Materials by a Beam-Bending Method: I, Theory
,” Journal of the American Ceramic Society
83
, no. 9
(September 2000
): 2231
–2239
, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1151-2916.2000.tb01540.x44.
Vichit-Vadakan
W.
and Scherer
G. W.
, “Measuring Permeability and Stress Relaxation of Young Cement Paste by Beam Bending
,” Cement and Concrete Research
33
, no. 12
(December 2003
): 1925
–1932
, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(03)00168-645.
Yehya
M.
, Andò
E.
, Dufour
F.
, and Tengattini
A.
, “Fluid-Flow Measurements in Low Permeability Media with High Pressure Gradients Using Neutron Imaging: Application to Concrete
,” Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment
890
(May 2018
): 35
–42
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2018.02.03946.
Bu
Y.
, Spragg
R.
, and Weiss
W. J.
, “Comparison of the Pore Volume in Concrete as Determined Using ASTM C642 and Vacuum Saturation
,” Advances in Civil Engineering Materials
3
, no. 1
(2014
): 308
–315
, https://doi.org/10.1520/ACEM2013009047.
Powers
T. C.
, Copeland
L. E.
, and Mann
H. M.
, “Capilary Continuity and Discontinuity in Cement Pastes
,” Journal of the Portland Cement Association
, no. 110
(1970
): 38
–48
.48.
Yacoub
A.
, Djerbi
A.
, and Fen-Chong
T.
, “The Effect of the Drying Temperature on Water Porosity and Gas Permeability of Recycled Sand Mortar
,” Construction and Building Materials
214
(July 2019
): 677
–684
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.04.12849.
Tibbetts
C. M.
, Tao
C.
, Paris
J. M.
, and Ferraro
C. C.
, “Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry Parameters for Use in Concrete Penetrability Qualification Using the Katz-Thompson Relationship
,” Construction and Building Materials
263
(December 2020
): 119834, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.11983450.
Bier
T. A.
, Ludirdja
D.
, Young
J. F.
, and Berger
R. L.
, “The Effect of Pore Structure and Cracking on the Permeability of Concrete
,” MRS Online Proceedings Library
137
, no. 1
(December 1988
): 235
–241
, https://doi.org/10.1557/PROC-137-23551.
Khanzadeh Moradllo
M.
, Qiao
C.
, Hall
H.
, Ley
M. T.
, Reese
S. R.
, and Weiss
W. J.
, “Quantifying Fluid Filling of the Air Voids in Air Entrained Concrete Using Neutron Radiography
,” Cement and Concrete Composites
104
(November 2019
): 103407, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2019.10340752.
Lucero
C. L.
, “Quantifying Moisture Transport in Cementitious Materials Using Neutron Radiography
” (master’s thesis, Purdue University
, 2015
).53.
Zeilinger
A.
and Hübner
R.
, “Measurement of Moisture Motion under a Temperature Gradient in a Concrete for SNR-300 Using Thermal Neutrons
,” in Transactions of the Third International Conference on Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology
(London
: International Association for Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology
, 1975
), http://web.archive.org/web/20230202163205/https://repository.lib.ncsu.edu/bitstream/handle/1840.20/28319/H1-9.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y54.
Groot
C. J. W. P.
, Verkerk
P.
, Van Tricht
J. B.
, and Van der Ende
P.
, “Study of Water Distribution in Joints and Bricks Using Scanning Neutron Radiography
,” in Proceedings of the Fifth Canadian Masonry Symposium
(Vancouver, Canada
: University of British Columbia
, 1989
), 477
–486
.55.
Groot
C. J. W. P.
, “First Minutes Water Transport from Mortar to Brick
,” Brick and Block Masonry
1
(1991
): 71
–78
.56.
Zhang
P.
, Wittmann
F. H.
, Zhao
T.
, Lehmann
E.
, and Jin
Z.
, “Visualization and Quantification of Water Movement in Porous Cement-Based Materials by Real Time Thermal Neutron Radiography: Theoretical Analysis and Experimental Study
,” Science China Technological Sciences
53
, no. 5
(May 2010
): 1198
–1207
, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11431-010-0115-357.
Tsuchiya
N.
, Kanematsu
M.
, and Noguchi
T.
, “Quick Water Movement around Concrete Cracks under Unsaturated Conditions
,” Construction and Building Materials
67
, Part A (September 2014
): 95
–99
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.11.08258.
Standard Specification for Mixing Rooms, Moist Cabinets, Moist Rooms, and Water Storage Tanks Used in the Testing of Hydraulic Cements and Concretes
, ASTM C511-21 (West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International
, approved December 1, 2021
), https://doi.org/10.1520/C0511-2159.
Moradllo
M. K.
, Qiao
C.
, Isgor
B.
, Reese
S.
, and Weiss
W. J.
, “Relating the Formation Factor of Concrete to Water Absorption
,” ACI Materials Journal
115
, no. 6
(2018
): 887
–898
, https://doi.org/10.14359/5170684460.
Moradllo
M. K.
, Montanari
L.
, Suraneni
P.
, Reese
S. R.
, and Weiss
J.
, “Examining Curing Efficiency Using Neutron Radiography
,” Transportation Research Record
2672
, no. 27
(December 2018
): 13
–23
, https://doi.org/10.1177/036119811877357161.
Moradllo
M. K.
, Qiao
C.
, Keys
M.
, Hall
H.
, Ley
M. T.
, Reese
S.
, and Weiss
W. J.
, “Quantifying Fluid Absorption in Air-Entrained Concrete Using Neutron Radiography
,” ACI Materials Journal
116
, no. 6
(2019
): 213
–226
, https://doi.org/10.14359/5171698062.
Moradllo
M. K.
, Reese
S. R.
, and Weiss
W. J.
, “Using Neutron Radiography to Quantify the Settlement of Fresh Concrete
,” Advances in Civil Engineering Materials
8
, no. 1
(2019
): 71
–87
, https://doi.org/10.1520/ACEM2018008663.
Hussey
D. S.
, Spernjak
D.
, Weber
A. Z.
, Mukundan
R.
, Fairweather
J.
, Brosha
E. L.
, Davey
J.
, Spendelow
J. S.
, Jacobson
D. L.
, and Borup
R. L.
, “Accurate Measurement of the Through-Plane Water Content of Proton-Exchange Membranes Using Neutron Radiography
,” Journal of Applied Physics
112
, no. 10
(November 2012
): 104906, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.476711864.
Schneider
C. A.
, Rasband
W. S.
, and Eliceiri
K. W.
, “NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 Years of Image Analysis
,” Nature Methods
9
, no. 7
(July 2012
): 671
–675
, https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.208965.
Kang
M.
, Bilheux
H. Z.
, Voisin
S.
, Cheng
C. L.
, Perfect
E.
, Horita
J.
, and Warren
J. M.
, “Water Calibration Measurements for Neutron Radiography: Application to Water Content Quantification in Porous Media
,” Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment
708
(April 2013
): 24
–31
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2012.12.11266.
Standard Method of Test for Determining the Total Pore Volume in Hardened Concrete Using Vacuum Saturation
, AASHTO TP 135-20 (Washington, DC: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
, 2020
).67.
Barrett
E. P.
, Joyner
L. G.
, and Halenda
P. P.
, “The Determination of Pore Volume and Area Distributions in Porous Substances. I. Computations from Nitrogen Isotherms
,” Journal of the American Chemical Society
73
, no. 1
(1951
): 373
–380
.68.
Rajabipour
F.
and Weiss
J.
, “Electrical Conductivity of Drying Cement Paste
,” Materials and Structures
40
, no. 10
(December 2007
): 1143
–1160
, https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-006-9211-z69.
Leão
T. P.
and Tuller
M.
, “Relating Soil Specific Surface Area, Water Film Thickness, and Water Vapor Adsorption
,” Water Resources Research
50
, no. 10
(October 2014
): 7873
–7885
, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013WR01494170.
Tuller
M.
and Or
D.
, “Water Films and Scaling of Soil Characteristic Curves at Low Water Contents
,” Water Resources Research
41
, no. 9
(September 2005
), https://doi.org/10.1029/2005WR00414271.
Villani
C.
, Snyder
K. A.
, and Weiss
W. J.
, “Evaluating the Intrinsic Permeability of Cementitious Materials Using a Falling-Head Gas Permeameter
,” Advances in Civil Engineering Materials
4
, no. 1
(2015
): 292
–306
, https://doi.org/10.1520/ACEM2015002172.
Goto
S.
and Roy
D. M.
, “The Effect of w/c Ratio and Curing Temperature on the Permeability of Hardened Cement Paste
,” Cement and Concrete Research
11
, no. 4
(July 1981
): 575
–579
, https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(81)90087-973.
Ngala
V. T.
and Page
C. L.
, “Effects of Carbonation on Pore Structure and Diffusional Properties of Hydrated Cement Pastes
,” Cement and Concrete Research
27
, no. 7
(July 1997
): 995
–1007
, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(97)00102-674.
Powers
T. C.
and Brownyard
T. L.
, “Studies of the Physical Properties of Hardened Portland Cement Paste
,” ACI Journal Proceedings
43
, no. 9
(1946
): 469
–504
, https://doi.org/10.14359/1530175.
Qiao
C.
, Moradllo
M. K.
, Hall
H.
, Ley
M. T.
, and Weiss
W. J.
, “Electrical Resistivity and Formation Factor of Air Entrained Concrete
,” ACI Materials Journal
116
, no. 3
(2019
): 85
–93
, https://doi.org/10.14359/5171450676.
Rangaraju
P. R.
, “Development of Some Performance-Based Material Specifications for High-Performance Concrete Pavement
,” Transportation Research Record
1834
, no. 1
(January 2003
): 69
–76
, https://doi.org/10.3141/1834-0977.
Neville
A. M.
, Properties of Concrete, Fourth and Final Edition
(Harlow, UK
: Addison Wesley Longman Limited
, 1996
).
This content is only available via PDF.
All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced or copied, in whole or part, in any printed, mechanical, electronic, film, or other distribution and storage media, without the written consent of ASTM International.
You do not currently have access to this content.
