We performed a characterization of the shock wave loading on the response of the specimen representing a simplified head model. A polycarbonate cylinder (2-in. outer diameter, wall thickness: 0.06 or 0.12 in.) was filled with two fluids: pure de-ionized water and 40% glycerol in water, which differ only slightly in their constitutive material properties. These two fluids were selected to represent the cerebrospinal fluid and cerebral blood, using their high strain rate viscosity as a primary selection criterion. The model specimen was exposed to a single shock wave with two nominal intensities: 70 and 130 kPa overpressure. The response of the model was measured using three strain gauges and three pressure sensors, one mounted on the front face of the cylinder and two embedded in the cylinder to measure the pressure inside of the fluid. We noted several discriminant characteristics in the collected data, which indicate that the type of fluid is strongly influencing the response. The vibrations of the cylinder walls are strongly correlated with the fluid kind. The similarity analysis via the Pearson coefficient indicated that the pressure waveforms in the fluid are only moderately correlated, and these results were further corroborated by Euclidean distance analysis. Continuous wavelet transform of pressure waveforms revealed that the frequency response is strongly correlated with the properties of the fluid. The observed differences in strain and pressure modalities stem from relatively small differences in the properties of the fluids used in this study.

Viewed in renal physiology as a refined filtration device, the glomerulus filters large volumes of blood plasma while keeping proteins within blood circulation. Effects of macromolecule size and macromolecule hydrodynamic interaction with the nanostructure of the cellular layers of the glomerular capillary wall on the glomerular size selectivity are investigated through a mathematical simulation based on an ultrastructural model. The epithelial slit, a planar arrangement of fibers connecting the epithelial podocytes, is represented as a row of parallel cylinders with nonuniform spacing between adjacent fibers. The mean and standard deviation of gap half-width between its fibers are based on values recently reported from electron microscopy. The glomerular basement membrane (GBM) is represented as a fibrous medium containing fibers of two different sizes: the size of type IV collagens and that of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). The endothelial cell layer is modeled as a layer full of fenestrae that are much larger than solute size and filled with GAGs. The calculated total sieving coefficient agrees well with the sieving coefficients of ficolls obtained from in vivo urinalysis in humans, whereas the computed glomerular hydraulic permeability also falls within the range estimated from human glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Our result indicates that the endothelial cell layer and GBM significantly contribute to solute and fluid restriction of the glomerular barrier, whereas, based on the structure of the epithelial slit obtained from electron microscopy, the contribution of the epithelial slit could be smaller than previously believed.

Styrene-based block copolymers are promising materials for the development of a polymeric heart valve prosthesis (PHV), and the mechanical properties of these polymers can be tuned via the manufacturing process, orienting the cylindrical domains to achieve material anisotropy. The aim of this work is the development of a computational tool for the optimization of the material microstructure in a new PHV intended for aortic valve replacement to enhance the mechanical performance of the device. An iterative procedure was implemented to orient the cylinders along the maximum principal stress direction of the leaflet. A numerical model of the leaflet was developed, and the polymer mechanical behavior was described by a hyperelastic anisotropic constitutive law. A custom routine was implemented to align the cylinders with the maximum principal stress direction in the leaflet for each iteration. The study was focused on valve closure, since during this phase the fibrous structure of the leaflets must bear the greatest load. The optimal microstructure obtained by our procedure is characterized by mainly circumferential orientation of the cylinders within the valve leaflet. An increase in the radial strain and a decrease in the circumferential strain due to the microstructure optimization were observed. Also, a decrease in the maximum value of the strain energy density was found in the case of optimized orientation; since the strain energy density is a widely used criterion to predict elastomer's lifetime, this result suggests a possible increase of the device durability if the polymer microstructure is optimized. The present method represents a valuable tool for the design of a new anisotropic PHV, allowing the investigation of different designs, materials, and loading conditions.

The present study, through finite element simulations, shows the geometric effects of a bioinspired solid on pressure and impulse mitigation for an elastic, plastic, and viscoelastic material. Because of the bioinspired geometries, stress wave mitigation became apparent in a nonintuitive manner such that potential real-world applications in human protective gear designs are realizable. In nature, there are several toroidal designs that are employed for mitigating stress waves; examples include the hyoid bone on the back of a woodpecker's jaw that extends around the skull to its nose and a ram's horn. This study evaluates four different geometries with the same length and same initial cross-sectional diameter at the impact location in three-dimensional finite element analyses. The geometries in increasing complexity were the following: (1) a round cylinder, (2) a round cylinder that was tapered to a point, (3) a round cylinder that was spiraled in a two dimensional plane, and (4) a round cylinder that was tapered and spiraled in a two-dimensional plane. The results show that the tapered spiral geometry mitigated the greatest amount of pressure and impulse (approximately 98% mitigation) when compared to the cylinder regardless of material type (elastic, plastic, and viscoelastic) and regardless of input pressure signature. The specimen taper effectively mitigated the stress wave as a result of uniaxial deformational processes and an induced shear that arose from its geometry. Due to the decreasing cross-sectional area arising from the taper, the local uniaxial and shear stresses increased along the specimen length. The spiral induced even greater shear stresses that help mitigate the stress wave and also induced transverse displacements at the tip such that minimal wave reflections occurred. This phenomenon arose although only longitudinal waves were introduced as the initial boundary condition (BC). In nature, when shearing occurs within or between materials (friction), dissipation usually results helping the mitigation of the stress wave and is illustrated in this study with the taper and spiral geometries. The combined taper and spiral optimized stress wave mitigation in terms of the pressure and impulse; thus providing insight into the ram's horn design and woodpecker hyoid designs found in nature.

Blast waves generated in the field explosions impinge on the head-brain complex and induce mechanical pressure pulses in the brain resulting in traumatic brain injury. Severity of the brain injury (mild to moderate to severe) is dependent upon the magnitude and duration of the pressure pulse, which in turn depends on the intensity and duration of the oncoming blast wave. A fluid-filled cylinder is idealized to represent the head-brain complex in its simplest form; the cylinder is experimentally subjected to an air blast of Friedlander type, and the temporal variations of cylinder surface pressures and strains and fluid pressures are measured. Based on these measured data and results from computational simulations, the mechanical loading pathways from the external blast to the pressure field in the fluid are identified; it is hypothesized that the net loading at a given material point in the fluid comprises direct transmissive loads and deflection-induced indirect loads. Parametric studies show that the acoustic impedance mismatches between the cylinder and the contained fluid as well as the flexural rigidity of the cylinder determine the shape/intensity of pressure pulses in the fluid.

A common problem in the elaboration of biomechanical models is determining the properties and characteristics (measures) of the physical behavior of in vivo tissues in the human body. Correct estimates must be made of the tissue's physical properties and its surroundings. We suggest a method to compute the constitutive modeling of venous tissue, for every specific patient, from clinically registered ultrasounds images. The vein is modeled as a hyperelastic, incompressible, thin-walled cylinder and the membrane stresses are computed using strain energy. The approach is based on a strain-energy function suggested by Holzapfel capturing the characteristic nonlinear anisotropic responses of femoral veins with its collagen fibers.

Migration of stent-grafts (SGs) after endovascular aneurysm repair of abdominal aortic aneurysms is a serious complication that may require secondary intervention. Experimental, analytical, and computational studies have been carried out in the past to understand the factors responsible for migration. In an experimental setting, it can be very challenging to correctly capture and understand the interaction between a SG and an artery. Quantities such as coefficient of friction (COF) and contact pressures that characterize this interaction are difficult to measure using an experimental approach. This behavior can be investigated with good accuracy using finite element modeling. Although finite element models are able to incorporate frictional behavior of SGs, the absence of reliable values of coefficient of friction make these simulations unreliable. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate a method for determining the coefficients of friction of a self-expanding endovascular stent-graft. The methodology is demonstrated by considering three commercially available self-expanding SGs, labeled as A , B , and C . The SGs were compressed, expanded, and pulled out of polymeric cylinders of varying diameters and the pullout force was recorded in each case. The SG geometries were recreated using computer-aided design modeling and the entire experiment was simulated in ABAQUS 6.8/ STANDARD . An optimization procedure was carried out for each SG oversize configuration to determine the COF that generated a frictional force corresponding to that measured in the experiment. The experimental pullout force and analytically determined COF for SGs A , B , and C were in the range of 6–9 N, 3–12 N, and 3–9 N and 0.08–0.16, 0.22–0.46, and 0.012–0.018, respectively. The computational model predicted COFs in the range of 0.00025–0.0055, 0.025–0.07, and 0.00025–0.006 for SGs A , B , and C , respectively. Our results suggest that for SGs A and B , which are exoskeleton based devices, the pullout forces increase upto a particular oversize beyond which they plateau, while pullout forces showed a continuous increase with oversize for SG C , which is an endoskeleton based device. The COF decreased with oversizing for both types of SGs. The proposed methodology will be useful for determining the COF between self-expanding stent-grafts from pullout tests on human arterial tissue.

During morphogenesis, epithelia (cell sheets) undergo complex deformations as they stretch, bend, and twist to form the embryo. Often these changes in shape create multivalued surfaces that can be problematic for strain measurements. This paper presents a method for quantifying deformation of such surfaces. The method requires four-dimensional spatiotemporal coordinates of a finite number of surface markers, acquired using standard imaging techniques. From the coordinates of the markers, various deformation measures are computed as functions of time and space using straightforward matrix algebra. This method accommodates sparse randomly scattered marker arrays, with reasonable errors in marker locations. The accuracy of the method is examined for some sample problems with exact solutions. Then, the utility of the method is illustrated by using it to measure surface stretch ratios and shear in the looping heart and developing brain of the early chick embryo. In these examples, microspheres are tracked using optical coherence tomography. This technique provides a new tool that can be used in studies of the mechanics of morphogenesis.

Proportional, integral, and derivative (PID) controllers have proven to be robust in controlling many applications, and remain the most widely used control system architecture. The purpose of this work was to use this architecture for designing and tuning two PID controllers. The first was used to control the physiologic arterial circumferential wall stress (CWS) and the second to control the physiologic arterial shear stress (SS) imposed on intact vascular segments that were implanted into an ex vivo vascular perfusion system (EVPS). In order to most accurately control the stresses imposed onto vascular segments perfused ex vivo, analytical models were derived to calculate the CWS and SS. The mid-vein-wall CWS was calculated using the classical Lamé solution for thick-walled cylinders in combination with the intraluminal pressure and outer diameter measurements. Similarly, the SS was calculated using the Hagen–Poiseuille equation in combination with the flow rate and outer diameter measurements. Performance of each controller was assessed by calculating the root mean square of the error (RMSE) between the desired and measured process variables. The performance experiments were repeated ten times ( N = 10 ) and an average RMSE was reported for each controller. RMSE standard deviations were calculated to demonstrate the reproducibility of the results. Sterile methods were utilized for making blood gas and temperature measurements in order to maintain physiologic levels within the EVPS. Physiologic blood gases (pH, p O 2 , and p C O 2 ) and temperature within the EVPS were very stable and controlled manually. Blood gas and temperature levels were recorded hourly for several ( N = 9 ) 24 h perfusion experiments. RMSE values for CWS control ( 0.427 ± 0.027 KPa ) indicated that the system was able to generate a physiologic CWS wave form within 0.5% error of the peak desired CWS over each cardiac cycle. RMSE values for SS control ( 0.005 ± 0.0007 dynes ∕ cm 2 ) indicated that the system was able to generate a physiologic SS wave form within 0.3% error of the peak desired SS over each cardiac cycle. Physiologic pH, p O 2 , p C O 2 , and temperature levels were precisely maintained within the EVPS. The built-in capabilities and overall performance of the EVPS described in this study provide us with a novel tool for measuring molecular responses of intact vascular segments exposed to precisely simulated arterial biomechanical conditions.

The influence of time-dependent flows on oxygen transport from hollow fibers was computationally and experimentally investigated. The fluid average pressure drop, a measure of resistance, and the work required by the heart to drive fluid past the hollow fibers were also computationally explored. This study has particular relevance to the development of an artificial lung, which is perfused by blood leaving the right ventricle and in some cases passing through a compliance chamber before entering the device. Computational studies modeled the fiber bundle using cylindrical fiber arrays arranged in in-line and staggered rectangular configurations. The flow leaving the compliance chamber was modeled as dampened pulsatile and consisted of a sinusoidal perturbation superimposed on a steady flow. The right ventricular flow was modeled to depict the period of rapid flow acceleration and then deceleration during systole followed by zero flow during diastole. Experimental studies examined oxygen transfer across a fiber bundle with either steady, dampened pulsatile, or right ventricular flow. It was observed that the dampened pulsatile flow yielded similar oxygen transport efficiency to the steady flow, while the right ventricular flow resulted in smaller oxygen transport efficiency, with the decrease increasing with Re. Both computations and experiments yielded qualitatively similar results. In the computational modeling, the average pressure drop was similar for steady and dampened pulsatile flows and larger for right ventricular flow while the pump work required of the heart was greatest for right ventricular flow followed by dampened pulsatile flow and then steady flow. In conclusion, dampening the artificial lung inlet flow would be expected to maximize oxygen transport, minimize work, and thus improve performance.

Wear of ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene remains a primary factor limiting the longevity of total knee replacements (TKRs). However, wear testing on a simulator machine is time consuming and expensive, making it impractical for iterative design purposes. The objectives of this paper were first, to evaluate whether a computational model using a wear factor consistent with the TKR material pair can predict accurate TKR damage measured in a simulator machine, and second, to investigate how choice of surface evolution method (fixed or variable step) and material model (linear or nonlinear) affect the prediction. An iterative computational damage model was constructed for a commercial knee implant in an AMTI simulator machine. The damage model combined a dynamic contact model with a surface evolution model to predict how wear plus creep progressively alter tibial insert geometry over multiple simulations. The computational framework was validated by predicting wear in a cylinder-on-plate system for which an analytical solution was derived. The implant damage model was evaluated for 5 million cycles of simulated gait using damage measurements made on the same implant in an AMTI machine. Using a pin-on-plate wear factor for the same material pair as the implant, the model predicted tibial insert wear volume to within 2% error and damage depths and areas to within 18% and 10% error, respectively. Choice of material model had little influence, while inclusion of surface evolution affected damage depth and area but not wear volume predictions. Surface evolution method was important only during the initial cycles, where variable step was needed to capture rapid geometry changes due to the creep. Overall, our results indicate that accurate TKR damage predictions can be made with a computational model using a constant wear factor obtained from pin-on-plate tests for the same material pair, and furthermore, that surface evolution method matters only during the initial “break in” period of the simulation.

The fundamental study of blood flow past a circular cylinder filled with an oxygen source is investigated as a building block for an artificial lung. The Casson constitutive equation is used to describe the shear-thinning and yield stress properties of blood. The presence of hemoglobin is also considered. Far from the cylinder, a pulsatile blood flow in the x direction is prescribed, represented by a time periodic (sinusoidal) component superimposed on a steady velocity. The dimensionless parameters of interest for the characterization of the flow and transport are the steady Reynolds number (Re), Womersley parameter ( α ) , pulsation amplitude ( A ) , and the Schmidt number (Sc). The Hill equation is used to describe the saturation curve of hemoglobin with oxygen. Two different feed-gas mixtures were considered: pure O 2 and air. The flow and concentration fields were computed for Re=5, 10, and 40, 0 ≤ A ≤ 0.75 , α = 0.25 , 0.4, and Schmidt number, Sc=1000. The Casson fluid properties result in reduced recirculations (when present) downstream of the cylinder as compared to a Newtonian fluid. These vortices oscillate in size and strength as A and α are varied. Hemoglobin enhances mass transport and is especially important for an air feed which is dominated by oxyhemoglobin dispersion near the cylinder. For a pure O 2 feed, oxygen transport in the plasma dominates near the cylinder. Maximum oxygen transport is achieved by operating near steady flow (small A ) for both feed-gas mixtures. The time averaged Sherwood number, Sh ̿ , is found to be largely influenced by the steady Reynolds number, increasing as Re increases and decreasing with A . Little change is observed with varying α for the ranges investigated. The effect of pulsatility on Sh ̿ is greater at larger Re. Increasing Re aids transport, but yields a higher cylinder drag force and shear stresses on the cylinder surface which are potentially undesirable.

Background: Knowledge of normal cardiac kinematics is important when attempting to understand the mechanisms that impair the contractile function of the heart during disease. The complex kinematics of the heart can be studied by inserting radiopaque markers in the cardiac wall and study the pumping heart with biplane cineradiography. In order to study the local strain, the bead array was developed where small radiopaque beads are inserted along three columns transmurally in the left ventricle. Method: This paper suggests a straightforward method for strain computation, based on polynomial least-squares fitting and tailored for combined marker and bead array analyses. Results: This polynomial method gives small errors for a realistic bead array on an analytical test case. The method delivers an explicit expression of the Lagrangian strain tensor as a polynomial function of the coordinates of material points in the reference configuration. The method suggested in this paper is validated with analytical strains on a deforming cylinder resembling the heart, compared to a previously suggested finite element method, and applied to in vivo ovine data. The errors in the estimated strain components are shown to remain unchanged on an analytical test case when evaluating the effects of one missing bead. In conclusion, the proposed strain computation method is accurate and robust, with errors smaller or comparable to the current gold standard when applied on an analytical test case.

Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women. Thermography, also known as thermal or infrared imaging, is a procedure to determine if an abnormality is present in the breast tissue temperature distribution. This abnormality in temperature distribution might indicate the presence of an embedded tumor. Although thermography is currently used to indicate the presence of an abnormality, there are no standard procedures to interpret these and determine the location of an embedded tumor. This research is a first step towards this direction. It explores the relationship between the characteristics (location and power) of an embedded heat source and the resulting temperature distribution on the surface. Experiments were conducted using a resistance heater that was embedded in agar in order to simulate the heat produced by a tumor in the biological tissue. The resulting temperature distribution on the surface was imaged using an infrared camera. In order to estimate the location and heat generation rate of the source from these temperature distributions, a genetic algorithm was used as the estimation method. The genetic algorithm utilizes a finite difference scheme for the direct solution of the Pennes bioheat equation. It was determined that a genetic algorithm based approach is well suited for the estimation problem since both the depth and the heat generation rate of the heat source were accurately predicted.

The pulsatile flow and gas transport of a Newtonian passive fluid across an array of cylindrical microfibers are numerically investigated. It is related to an implantable, artificial lung where the blood flow is driven by the right heart. The fibers are modeled as either squared or staggered arrays. The pulsatile flow inputs considered in this study are a steady flow with a sinusoidal perturbation and a cardiac flow. The aims of this study are twofold: identifying favorable array geometry/spacing and system conditions that enhance gas transport; and providing pressure drop data that indicate the degree of flow resistance or the demand on the right heart in driving the flow through the fiber bundle. The results show that pulsatile flow improves the gas transfer to the fluid compared to steady flow. The degree of enhancement is found to be significant when the oscillation frequency is large, when the void fraction of the fiber bundle is decreased, and when the Reynolds number is increased; the use of a cardiac flow input can also improve gas transfer. In terms of array geometry, the staggered array gives both a better gas transfer per fiber (for relatively large void fraction) and a smaller pressure drop (for all cases). For most cases shown, an increase in gas transfer is accompanied by a higher pressure drop required to power the flow through the device.

A sphere within a cylinder representing the islet encapsulated in a hollow fiber can model an implantable bioartificial pancreas. Based on a finite element model for insulin response to a glucose load in the presence of various oxygen supplies, the present study aimed at pointing out the major parameters influencing this secretion. The computational results treated with the Taguchi method clearly demonstrated that geometrical parameters (fiber length and islet density) should be precisely optimized for an enhanced insulin response. This requires the collection of more relevant experimental data concerning the islet oxygen consumption. Moreover, the relative errors on glucose consumption or insulin secretion by the islets do not seem to affect the whole optimization process, which should focus on the oxygen supply to islets.

Vascular stents influence the post-procedural hemodynamic environment in ways that may encourage restenosis. Understanding how stents influence flow patterns may lead to more hemodynamically compatible stent designs that alleviate thrombus formation and promote endothelialization. This study employed time-resolved Digital Particle Image Velocimetry (DPIV) to compare the hemodynamic performance of two stents in a compliant vessel. The first stent was a rigid insert, representing an extreme compliance mismatch. The second stent was a commercially available nitinol stent with some flexural characteristics. DPIV showed that compliance mismatch promotes the formation of a ring vortex in the vicinity of the stent. Larger compliance mismatch increased both the size and residence time of the ring vortex, and introduced in-flow stagnation points. These results provide detailed quantitative evidence of the hemodynamic effect of stent mechanical properties. Better understanding of these characteristics will provide valuable information for modifying stent design in order to promote long-term patency.

Here, we analyze energy transformations in the outer hair cell and its effectiveness as a piezoelectric-type actuator in the cochlea. The major modes of energy are introduced, and a method to estimate the coefficients of their tension-dependence is proposed. Next, we derive balance of the mechanical and electrical parts of energy, and show two forms of the active energy associated with the motors driving electromotility. The two forms of the active energy, stored mechanical energy, and external electrical work are then introduced as functions of voltage and applied force. We use the energy balance to introduce and estimate the effectiveness of the cell’s electromotile response.

A three-dimensional scalable biomechanical model of the four fingers of the hand to evaluate power grip is proposed. The model has been validated by means of reproducing an experiment in which the subjects exerted the maximal voluntary grasping force over cylinders of different diameters. The model is used to simulate the cylinder grip for two hand sizes and for five different handle diameters. The reduction of the muscle forces using different handle diameters has been studied. The model can be applied to the design and evaluation of handles for power grip and to the study of power grasp for normal and abnormal hands.

High-field, high-speed Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) generates high sound levels within and nearby the scanner. The mechanism and process that produces the gradient magnetic field (a cylindrical electro-magnet, called the gradient coil cylinder, which produces a spatially and temporally varying magnetic field inside a static background magnetic field) is the primary source of this noise. This noise can cause difficulties in verbal communication in and around the scanner, heightened patient anxiety, temporary hearing loss and possible permanent hearing impairment for health care workers and patients. In order to effectively suppress the sound radiation from the gradient coil cylinder the sound field within and nearby the gradient coil needs to be characterized. This characterization may be made using an analytical solution of the sound pressure field, computational simulation, measurement analysis or some combination of these three methods. This paper presents the computational simulation and measurement results of a study of the sound radiation from a head and neck gradient coil cylinder within a 4 Tesla MRI whole body scanner. The measurement results for the sound pressure level distribution along the centerline of the gradient coil cylinder are presented. The sound pressure distributions predicted from Finite Element Analysis of the gradient coil movement during operation and subsequent Boundary Element Analysis of the sound field generated are also presented. A comparison of the measured results and the predicted results shows close agreement. Because of the extremely complex nature of the analytical solution for the gradient coil cylinder, a treatment of the analytical solution and comparison to the computational results for a simple cylinder vibrating in a purely radial direction are also presented and also show close agreement between the two methods thus validating the computational approach used with the more complex gradient coil cylinder.