The transition of satellite InSAR technology to a ground-based system provides a proven risk reduction technology if combined with a critical slope monitoring (CSM) program. Together the technology with the active engagement of a defined program can detect the onset of slope displacement, acceleration, and provide a method to determine slope collapse. Recently, using the radar software, Guardian, and its ability to document surface velocity in intervals of 24-hours or less has allowed for the development of site-specific levels of rockfall risk. The ground-based InSAR (interferometric synthetic aperture radar) systems and their near real-time capabilities allow for proactive and early warning monitoring. The technical requirements include the ability to operate 24/7 in all weather conditions, acquire data in near real-time, and visually present data in an interpretable format that requires no end user processing. Since slope failure without acceleration is unlikely, the rapid visual presentation of processed data becomes a crucial component for a CSM technology. The definition of the CSM program not only requires short intervals for data acquisition, processing, and visual presentation but also requires a monitoring professional that can interpret and communicate changes in slope movement. A specific CSM technology requirement demands, acquiring data at a continuous interval of 2-minutes or less, 24 hours per day for the duration of the monitoring project. Also, the CSM technology must be able to transmit alarm messages at the moment thresholds are met, visually present data with various time series plots, including displacement, and velocity maps while acquired radar data is continuously updated and with no end-user processing. A site-specific document called a trigger action response plan (TARP) needs to be prepared at the start of any CSM project. Currently, only the IBIS-FM and ArcSAR radars developed by IDS (Ingegneria Dei Sistemi) GeoRadar can meet the technical requirements of the defined CSM technology. During a CSM program, the short interval between each data acquisition provides two specific advantages. First, the short acquisition interval decreases interpolation, which automatically increases data confidence. Second, the short intervals also decrease the effects of atmospheric changes that are a part of all data acquisitions. Although the IBIS-FM and ArcSAR radar systems can operate in nearly all-weather conditions, sudden changes in local atmospheric conditions can still exhibit data effects. Both radar systems include active proprietary algorithms that account for ongoing atmospheric changes during acquisitions. In comparison, some remote sensing data acquired from, LIDAR, and total station technologies can be critically affected by sudden changes in local atmospheric conditions. Combining the near real-time capabilities of an interferometric synthetic aperture radar system with a dedicated professional will decrease risk to people and property by allowing slope movement trends to be identified and observed in near real-time, 24-hours per/day. The paper will discuss the highlights of several successful CSM programs. We describe deployment versatility, the ability to identify the onset of displacement accurately, and the critical identification of the onset of acceleration.

The Camisea Pipelines Transportation System (STD) owned by Transportadora de Gas del Peru (TGP) is operated and maintained by Compania Operadora de Gas del Amazonas (COGA). The system consists of two pipelines: a 730-kilometer long Natural Gas (NG) pipeline, which runs from the Upstream facilities in the Malvinas to the Receptor Station in Lurin (south of Lima), which has a loop in the area of Coast of 135 km in length and the Natural Gas Liquids pipeline (NGL) of 557 kilometers, which transports the condensed liquids from Malvinas to Pisco, on the coast of Peru. In the first 210 km, it crosses a complicated zone of the Peruvian Amazon, between the kilometric poste (KP) 210 and KP 420, the sector of the mountain range is defined and between the KP 420 and KP 730, the coastal sector is located. Due to the influence area and the project magnitude, solutions for many problems frequently require access to various types of information that can only be geographically related or by their spatial distribution. In this sense the Geographic Information Systems (GIS), provides the necessary tools to store and manage information using these references, thus allowing to analyze patterns of behavior, relationships and trends in information, all with the interest of contributing to the taking of better decisions. Likewise, given the complicated geography on which the project is developed, as well as the populations dynamic, the threats of geohazards and damages by third parties respectively, require evaluations and field data collection on a permanent basis, this also because it is about threats that are independent of time and that represent the highest percentage of failures for the South American pipelines. In this sense, data collection using GIS technology allows users, through the use of previously established forms, to capture field information, as well as the corresponding photographic record. Also, during the data collection, users have at their disposal on their mobile devices relevant information that allows a more objective spatial and temporal analysis of a specific place. This information is synchronized with the GIS database of the organization and used in the evaluation of risks to the integrity of the pipelines. This article describes the methodology for field data collection, using GIS technology, as well as the process of validation and publication of the data in the Geodatabase of the company and the benefits associated with having updated and available information to guarantee the best decision making.

For pipelines in the oil, gas, and mining industry, movement of pipelines is one of the main integrity hazards. This movement in most cases is caused by landslides instigated by heavy rain, earthquakes or volcanic activities. If the pipeline movement remains undetected at an early stage, it can lead to the need for costly repairs to prevent, remove, or repair potential or actual damage. Moreover, if the movements stay undetected for too long, these lines may fail and lead to catastrophic events. This paper will illustrate what a fast and cost-effective solution to avoid these threats at an early stage looks like and how it works. It will explain the process and demonstrate the full power of this technology on the basis of a case study. The standard solution for pipelines without a permanent position monitoring system at the time of installation includes the use of intelligent tools that are able to detect even the slightest changes in the trajectory. These inspection tools are quite expensive to run, especially when multiple screening runs are required throughout a year, e.g. before and after the rainy season or after a seismic event. Other monitoring solutions are either limited to only a specific area where the movement has already been detected at an earlier stage or lack the precision required to serve as an early warning system, such as LIDAR or satellite image comparison. Over the years, ROSEN has developed a technology that can bridge the gap between frequent measurements and cost-effective service. It is based on an electronic gyroscope that is commonly used in Inline Inspection tools but can also be installed in readily available cleaning tools. When first run in a pipeline, it records the whole pipeline trajectory, leaving no segment undocumented. The next step is to compare these recorded pipeline routing measurements with already existing trajectory baseline data, recorded earlier by any ILI tool with an optical gyro or similar. This comparison will reveal any deviation between both trajectories and precisely determine any pipeline movement. A case study will demonstrate how the comparison is achieved. When performing repetitive inspections, this screening comparison enables the operators to detect the onset of movements and monitor the progress of any known pipeline movement. It allows them to distinguish between stable areas from dynamic ground movements and keeps close track of changes in the pipe course. Through regular repetitions, any further development of the movement is tracked, and appropriate reactive measures can be scheduled in a timely manner. This new service provides a cost-effective and powerful early warning tool for geological pipeline integrity threats that can lead to loss of integrity, the asset, or — worst-case scenario — loss of life or environmental contamination, while at the same time, it reduces the necessity of pipeline intervention that will affect production.

The Wapiti River South Slope (the Slope) near Grand Prairie, Alberta, Canada, is 500 m long and consists of a steep lower slope and a shallower upper slope. Both the upper and the lower slopes are located within a landslide complex with ground movements of varying magnitudes and depths. The Alliance Pipeline (Alliance) NPS 42 Mainline (the pipeline) was installed in the winter of 2000 using conventional trenching techniques at an angle of approximately 8° to the slope fall line. Evidence of slope instability was observed in the slope since 2007. The surficial geology of the slope comprises a colluvium layer draped over bedrock formation in the lower slope, and glacial deposits in the upper slope. Available data indicated two different slide mechanisms. In the lower slope, there is a shallow translational slide within a colluvium layer, and in the upper slope there is a deep-seated translational slide within the glacial deposits. Both the upper and lower slope landslides have been confirmed to be active in the past decade. Gradual ground displacements in the order of several centimeters per year were observed in both the upper and lower slopes between 2007 and 2012. Large ground displacements in the order of several meters were observed between 2012 and 2014 in the lower slope that led to the first stress relief and subsequent slope mitigation measures in the spring and summer of 2014. Monitoring of the slope after mitigations indicated significant reduction in the rate of ground movement in the lower slope. Surveying of the pipeline before and after stress relief indicated an increase in lateral pipeline deformation in the direction of ground movement, following the stress relief. This observation raised questions regarding the effectiveness of partial stress relief to reduce stresses and strains associated with ground movements. Finite element analysis (FEA) was conducted in 2016 to aid in assessing the condition of the pipeline after being subject to ground displacements prior to 2014, stress relief in 2014, and subsequent ground displacement from July 2014 to December 2016. The results and findings of the FEA reasonably matched the observed pipeline behaviour before and after stress relief in the lower slope. The FEA results demonstrated that while the lateral displacement of the pipeline, originally caused by ground movement, increased following the removal of the soil loading during the stress relief, the maximum pipeline strain was reduced within the excavated portion. The FEA was also employed to assess the pipeline response to potential ground displacement scenarios following December 2016. For this assessment, three ground displacement scenarios that comprise different lengths of the pipeline were analyzed. An increased rate of ground displacement, with a pattern that matched one of the analyzed scenarios, was observed in the upper slope in the spring of 2017. The results of FEA were used to assess the pipeline response to the increased rate of displacement in the upper slope. Subsequently a decision was made to stress-relieve the pipeline. The second stress-relief was conducted in the summer of 2017. This stress relief was conducted locally at the toe and head of the active slide in the upper slope, where the FEA showed the greatest stress concentrations in the pipeline.

Pipeline geohazard management practices and technologies have evolved rapidly over the past 15 years in step with industry’s drive towards zero failures. This paper describes the evolution in geohazard management for pipelines since the early 2000’s and describes how technology and management practices are currently being adapted to accommodate South American site conditions and data sources. It ends by outlining a possible framework for industry, regulatory and academic collaboration within South America that offers the potential for another step-function improvement in pipeline safety.

This Paper presents a case study of the Jardim Novo Maracanã stream situated in Campinas, São Paulo, in which recent streambed modifications were characterized, aiming to define the rates and the potential erosions along the channel alignment of which have Bolivia-Brazil Gas Pipeline crossing. Its presents the erosion process analysis and mitigation concepts aimed at the pipeline and fiber optic cables facilities integrity, as well as to indicate the design issues, considering the streambed deepening in this watershed. For this, satellite images and aerial photographs were collected in different periods, soil and subsoil surveys were performed, information on rainfall and watershed characteristics was analyzed, as well as hydrological and hydrotechnical studies were developed. These studies included geotechnical channel and banks analyzes, the spatial and temporal trends of the fluvial geomorphology evolution and the infrastructures safety conditions analysis. It was concluded that a new channel erosion process occurred after the streambed was filled by recent sediments. This process is associated with an increase floods magnitude, the slopes occupation intensification with the county urbanization and the streambed conditions changes, from an alignment sinuous to rectilinear and from a shallow to deeper channel. Once initiated, the channel erosion process maintained its retroerosion, i.e. its “headcutting” trend, deepening its equilibrium profile to its stratigraphic base level, located about 5.0 m below the 2014 stream bottom, in the pipeline cross section. Alternative concepts for the infrastructure integrity rehabilitation in these new morphological-fluvial conditions were also developed and dimensioned. Among these, the rectangular culverts alternative was adopted. They support a landfill at the crossing with the buried pipe and have to 100-year return period peak flows capacity.

The development of third world countries is surrounded by a thousand challenges, one of them is to increase and modernize the transport infrastructure to improve competitiveness in an increasingly interconnected world. Colombia in recent years has undertaken a titanic task of construction of highways to meet this purpose, have hired more than 8170 km of roads, however, this task generates a major challenge for the oil industry since the construction of these roads generates an unplanned interference with the hydrocarbon transport infrastructure that, if not handled correctly, can cause ruptures or damage in the pipelines and the consequent economic and environmental losses. In 2015 the design of the highway that interconnects the municipalities of Remedios and Caucasia in the department of Antioquia began. This project was called Autopistas del Nordeste. The road was designed to pass through the Pocune river valley, however, the environmental licensing of this type of project requires the revision of the interference with other networks. It was found that the new road crossed the Ocensa pipeline at 26 points. The geographical conditions require the use of this small corridor by many lines, 2 pipelines (Ocensa and ODC), a 500 KV power line and, of course, the current tertiary route and the projected highway that connects these municipalities. The challenge is huge, in this article the project is described, the negotiation stages that have been necessary to carry out with the way to make compatible the projects and the threats that have been overcome in the constructive stage.

Gross Disproportionation concept is used as indicator once risk reduction measures are required. This indicator shows that a measure must be implemented if its cost (i.e. Capital Expenditure), is not grossly disproportionate if compared to benefits — represented by casualties suppression — reached by the measure. Due to this, a risk reduction measure is reasonable feasible unless its cost is highly disproportionate in comparison to its benefits. In hydrocarbon transportation industry, benefits represent the avoided cost if threats take place; on the other hand, for risk mitigation cost estimation, the cost per casualty averted must be accounted. The latter, provides a global cost of the mitigation measure adopted in relation to the direct cost of construction, with the reduction of the level of risk (i.e. social risk) and with the expected design period for that measure. In this last concept, the higher the reduction in the level of risk or the longer the design period of the mitigation measure, the lower the cost per casualty averted, a fact that reflects an effective mitigation measure in terms of risk reduction and its durability. This document shows, from a case study, how the application of the concept of grow disproportionation allows to select the type of optimal intervention over Ocensa’s pipeline, with the most favorable relation between cost and benefit, and the effective risk reduction level.

The floods of rivers and streams are among the threats that most frequently cause technological accidents. A quantitative analysis of the risk of breakage of pipelines in crossings with channels is presented. The proposed methodology evaluates the risk of rupture of the pipeline quantifying both the threat of being discovered and its vulnerability to hydrodynamic forces and those due to vortex shedding. Decision-making for risk mitigation is complemented by the evaluation of the consequences that breakage can produce in the environment and in the activity of the operator, that is, the assessment of the severity of the risk. To this end, the impact is quantified in terms of the extent of the damage caused and the economic losses due to the stoppage of production and the remediation costs. Finally, risk management is developed, which includes actions to mitigate the hazard and vulnerability, the priority of each of them and the implementation and monitoring plans. The application of the proposed methodology achieves the early identification and reduction of risk of breakage, knowledge of the state of the crosses, objectivity and reliability in the assignment of risk levels and the correct allocation of resources for mitigation.

In recent years, the Colombian government has strengthened its legislation moving towards a disaster risk management system (Law 1523 in 2012) and has established guidelines on the role of public and private entities (decree 2157 in 2017) when defining the structure of disaster risk management plans. This paper presents the advancements on Natech risk management implementation in Cenit (major Colombian pipeline operator of hydrocarbons transport), to identify areas of potential disaster based on the application of its geohazards assessment model that considers prevention specific elements and consequence analysis.

Pipelines are naturally vulnerable to operational, environmental and man-made effects such as internal erosion and corrosion; mechanical deformation due to geophysical risks and ground movements. This paper describes the on-line monitoring ofmultiple critical sections ofburied oil pipelines, part of Ecopetrol’s transportation network across the country, which were experiencing mechanical deformations due to local soil and geohazard effects using fiber optic strain sensors. Over 1,000 individual fiber optic Bragg grating (FBG) strain sensors were installed across 72 different sectors dispersed across the Colombian pipeline network. The system has been in service since 2013 and has helped provide early warning on several severe pipeline accumulated strain deformations and imminent ruptures, as well as to understand the mechanical behavior on buried pipelines under diverse soil geohazard conditions.

Geotechnical monitoring based on optical fiber sensor technology has been used over more than a decade to detect hazards than can affect the integrity of pipelines. In particular when these sensors are implemented in the form of distributed temperature and strain sensors, respectively known as DTS and DSS, they provide information about hazard location and spatial extension. In addition, these sensors can capture the speed at which the event developing in particular when implemented as a permanent monitoring solution. So far these sensors were implemented as part of an alarming system detecting events such as landslides, erosion and subsidence. The current work aims at presenting simple method to extract additional information about the hazard such as the amplitude of the soil displacement in the case of landslides and subsidence or dirt cover for erosion. Estimation of stress in soil is also discussed based on the cable strain-stress relation obtained from the sensing cable qualification. The approach is validated by academic works conducted in parallel of the technology development. The method use is then illustrated by its application to field data collected from several events occurred over the past 10 years.

In sectors where pipelines cross areas exposed to severe hazards or where the consequences are serious, traditional analyses based on the Risk Analysis Matrix (RAM) do not reflect the effect of the works and actions taken for risk control. That condition induces the idea of ineffectiveness or uselessness of the works and actions taken for protection and reinforcement. In this paper, for those situations it is proposed the analysis of hypothetical scenarios to determine which of them can become catastrophic, in order to assess which situations can trigger a catastrophe, and in consequence to take actions regarding them and thus to avoid the catastrophic situation. The suggested method consists in proposing scenarios of damages, corresponding an event of loss of product containment of a hydrocarbon transport system. In those scenarios, the following consequences of the oil spill are determined: the behaviour of the product, its route, the site of rupture, the possible threats that affect it, and the triggers of the threatening processes. Critical or catastrophic scenarios are selected and the chain of events regarding them is determined as detailed as possible. When analysing that chain, it is possible to find actions that may modify it, such as the control of the route so that it does not reach the sensitive elements, the strengthening of the pipeline to bear the hazards, the reinforcement of the ground to prevent the action of the hazards and to avoid that the hazard takes place. It must be determined how to protect the exposed elements and how to handle the spilled product to avoid the affectation of the elements mentioned above. For this point, it is important to know the infrastructure of the Contingency Plan and therefore to evaluate the possibility of strengthening it.

Contamination of waterbodies as a result of hydrocarbon releases is one of the most undesirable events in our industry. Unfortunately, over the past few years, several major events have occurred around the globe, and geohazards have played a major role in many of these. Indeed, Pipeline Geohazard Management is a complex, multi-disciplinary process, heavily dependent on data integration and expert judgment. The current work presents a methodology that allows the identification of critical zones by assessing potential hydrocarbon release mechanisms that could affect waterbodies and adjacent areas, including: channel section pipeline failures, approach slope pipeline failures and spill path effects. The geological model is constructed based on datasets such as a digital elevation model (DEM), surficial geology and route geometry form. Additional datasets can also be derived to represent features such as drainage basins and slopes. The entire framework is being implemented on a data and integrity management platform that not only supports the integration of spatial, geological and general integrity management data (including multiple ILI data sets) but can also execute processes, such as stability analysis, and provide visualizations of results within a GIS (Geographic Information System) environment. Execution of semi-quantitative and quantitative risk assessments is also facilitated, as well as the elaboration of rehabilitation plans. To illustrate the methodology application and the platform capabilities, an anonymized, but real, case study is presented.

Plains Midstream Canada (PMC) completes a watercourse crossing program as part of its overall integrity management program. The approximately 9,900 kilometers of operating and discontinued pipelines are evaluated within the watercourse crossing program. The pipelines are located throughout the Canadian Provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Ontario. The terrain traversed ranges from relatively steep near the Rocky Mountains to extremely flat in northern Alberta and Southern Ontario. Since 2008, PMC’s systematic watercourse crossing program has evolved and now consists of approximately 5,000 individual watercourse crossings. The bankfull width of the watercourses ranges from less than 1 m for intermittent streams to more than 700 m at major rivers. The watercourse crossing program is subjected to a continuous improvement process, with a focus on key learnings from pipeline failures, free spans and exposure. This paper describes the results from the program over the last 10 years and highlights program improvements. In addition, data from a failure and three free spans on the pipelines now owned by PMC, but where the exposure, free span or failure occurred prior to PMC purchasing the pipelines were added to expand the available data for the key learnings.

Geohazards have the potential to adversely affect the operation or integrity of an existing pipeline, or the routing, design, and construction of a proposed pipeline. Identifying, characterizing, evaluating, and if necessary, mitigating and monitoring geologic hazards have become critical steps to successfully and safely building and operating pipelines in the Appalachian Basin region of the United States. The recent, rapid expansion of pipeline construction and operation in the region, along with natural geologic and geographic conditions which are conducive to landsliding and ground subsidence, have resulted in a recent increase in geohazard-related incidences both during and post-construction of pipelines. As such, there is an increasing need to recognize, understand, and closely manage geohazards in this region, prior to, during, and post-construction of pipelines. This paper will provide an overview of essential tools that have proven most useful in this region, to identify, characterize, and ultimately mitigate and monitor potential geohazards. This paper will also provide insight on how to evaluate specific project needs and best-fit approaches and solutions for the project at hand, to reduce the operator’s risk. A case study will be presented from the Appalachian Basin region, including how a phased approach was used to assess and manage geohazards. The phased approach includes (1) Phase I Assessments, which consist of a regional-scale desktop assessment to identify, initially characterize, and qualitatively classify (e.g., low, moderate, high hazards) geohazards; (2) Phase II Assessments, which consist of a non-intrusive ground reconnaissance completed at targeted sites; and (3) Phase III Assessments, which consist of subsurface investigations such as drilling, test pitting, or geophysical surveys to further characterize specific hazards. The information obtained from the phased approach can be used for the design of mitigation and/or monitoring, if deemed necessary. Overall approaches to selecting and utilizing best-fit mitigation and monitoring options, both during and post-construction, fit for the regional conditions and to the individual project, will also be discussed.

Many pipelines are built in regions affected by harsh environmental conditions where changes in soil texture between winter and summer increase the likelihood of risks. Pipeline routes also cross the mountains that are characterized by steep slopes and unstable soils as in the Andes and along the coastal range of Brazil. In other cases, these pipelines are laid in remote areas with significant seismic activity or exposure to permafrost. Depending on weather conditions and location, visual inspection is difficult or even impossible and therefore remote sensing solutions for pipes offer significant advantages over conventional inspection techniques. Optical fibers can help solve these challenges. Optical fiber based geotechnical and structural monitoring use distributed measurement of strain and temperature thanks to the sensitivity of Brillouin scattering to mechanical and thermal stresses. The analysis of scattering combined with a time domain technique allows the measurement of strain and temperature profiles. Temperature measurement is carried out to control soil erosion or dune migration through event quantification and spatial location. Direct measurement of strain in the soil also improves the detection of environmental hazards. As an example the technology can pinpoint the early signs of landslide. In some cases, pipe actual deformation must be monitored such as in case of active tectonic fault crossing. Pipe deformation monitoring operation is achieved by the measurement of distributed strain along fiber sensors attached to the structure. This paper comprehensively reviews over 10 years of continuous development from technology qualification and validation to its implementation in real cases as well as its successful continuous operation. Case studies present pipeline monitoring in Arctic and Siberian environment as well as in the Andes. They illustrate how the technology is used and demonstrate proof of early detection and location of events such as erosion, landslide, subsidence and pipe deformation.

Establishing pipeline failure frequencies enables designers and operators to make informed decisions on the allocation of resources to address different threats. Normally, this would involve the selection and timing of inspection, monitoring and protection activities. Typically, failure frequencies are defined based on the collection of historical statistics. This is difficult for geohazards due to the comparatively low incident rate compared to other hazards, however the consequences tend to be catastrophic. As a result, significant uncertainties are attached to predicted failure frequencies for geohazards. Two principal areas of uncertainty cover the occurrence and nature of loading events and whether the pipeline will survive the loading. This paper addresses both of these key aspects. The occurrence and nature of loading can be determined from the examination of in-line inspection records through different terrains. The pipeline survival rate is based on the efficient execution of multiple analysis runs within a finite element code where the distributions of the key input variables are defined to cover either observed or potential variation in the field. These include landslide size, orientation, movement and soil stiffness values as well as considerations of tensile fracture limits. The calculation of the probability of pipeline failure due to landslide loading is illustrated using a case study.

The design and construction planning of pipelines is a multidisciplinary effort that requires support and input from geotechnical, geomatics and pipeline construction specialists. The cooperation between those disciplines is more pronounced and required when the pipeline traverses rugged mountainous areas with challenging settings. This paper begins by considering the range of topographic, geological, construction and other route datasets and how they are generated. A presentation of an application that has been developed and utilizes progressively improving route datasets as projects advance to generate Right-of-Way (ROW) footprint and detailed construction quantities such as granular excavation volumes, supply and demand quantities and cross-section details is introduced. An overview of construction details including construction direction, seasonality, and ROW profile is then offered. In addition, several analytical methods are available for deployment, each being suited for various stages of a project’s development. These analytical methods include advanced workbooks and GIS Enabled Applications that leverages DTM information as well as commercially available packages. A discussion of these methods is presented together with suggested guidelines as to when to apply them in a proposed project’s phase. Finally, lessons learnt from the experiences gained in several major projects are summarized.

The 408 km × 34" PERULNG pipeline (operated by Hunt LNG Operating Company) is monitored in its first 62 km by a geotechnical fiber optic cable, since these first 62 km are exposed to major geohazard threats such as landslides, large river crossings, high slopes, bofedales, etc. The fiber optic cable geotechnical monitoring relies on the measurement of strain and temperature in the pipeline right-of-way. Due to the continuous and real-time monitoring of the duct, it was possible to detect a tension cracking near KP 25 + 600 as an abnormal temperature change was captured by the temperature sensing cable; also near KP 27 + 900 and KP 34 + 750 unusual cable stresses were detected which announced landslides of the rotational type in both locations. In these three cases, protection decisions could be taken to secure pipeline’s integrity.