Nuclear energy has been regarded as a controversial energy option to reduce carbon emissions, alleviate global warming and build a low-carbon society due to the public perception of nuclear energy. Public perception and acceptance are vital to the development of nuclear energy. However, the public has many misunderstandings and misconceptions about nuclear energy. To change the way that the public view nuclear energy, this paper attempts to build an engagement model that shifts from a oneway information transfer with a focus on changing people’s minds in a single interaction, to a two-way dialogue rooted in listening, respect, and building long-term relationships that would shift understanding on a scientific issue over time. Based on a survey conducted on residents in China, we offer a research hypothesis that describes the connection between public engagement, public knowledge, perceived risk, perceived trust and environmental concern. This study indicated that public knowledge is positively related to environmental concern and public engagement but not significantly related to perceived risks. Meanwhile, this study also demonstrated the positive effect of environmental concern, perceived trust on public engagement. Centered on the results, we make corresponding policy to increase public engagement.

According to the Periodic Safety Review Process, the safety level is re-assessed every ten years, considering national and international operational feedback, evolution of knowledge and best available practices. Protection against natural hazards is part of this safety level re-assessment. In the current global change context, climate change impact has to be integrated in external natural hazards estimations, such as climatic hazards or external flooding. EDF has consequently implemented a climate watch approach. Undertaken approximately every 5 years, roughly in line with the publication of the assessment reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and with the update of safety licensing basis during Periodic Safety Reviews, this approach is intended to: - revisit the climatic hazards which present a plausible or certain upward trend, and could lead to an increased reference hazard level, - monitor the reach of target levels which should trigger a thorough analysis (concept of Major Climate Event) to ensure the robustness of the reference hazard level between two periodic reviews. This climate watch approach is developed in partnership with the scientific community and is based on the following activities: - compile and analyze datasets on hazards that are subject to changes with climate change (observed and modelled time series), - develop knowledge of associated climatic phenomena (models, projections). The application of this approach is presented in two steps: - the key implications of the last climate watch exercise carried out in 2015, which identified climatic hazards whose evolution is unfavorable and is plausible or certain for the sites of EDF NPPs: ○ High air and water temperatures (for the “heat wave” hazard) ○ Sea level (for the “external flooding” hazard for coastal or estuary sites) ○ Drought or « low flow » hazard for fluvial sites; - the results obtained for the 900 MW units, for which EDF started the 4th periodic safety review in 2019. Such an approach, which is closely linked to periodic reviews, ensures the robustness of nuclear power plants to the climatic hazards through the consideration of the updated hazard levels.

According to the flow condition of the nuclear turbine, we can divide the turbine into the radial inflow turbine and axial inflow turbine. The radial flow turbine refers to the turbine steam where the steam or the vapor flows along the radial center. The radial machine has much greater work performance. Because the steam has to overcome the centrifugal force which increases its work ability. Currently, the radial inflow turbine is widely used in small unit and super low temperature engineering. In the state of global warming and the lack of energy, the radial inflow turbine performs well since it has a lot of advantages. This paper mainly introduces the process of the thermal design of a radial inflow turbine. One of the most important task is to determine the basic thermodynamic process and the selection of various parameters of the radial inflow turbine. We will apply the computer programming language C# to compile it. The thermodynamic process design uses IAPWS-IF97 formula to compute physical parameters of the vapor. Then we will finish the development of the software.

Environmental problems, especially air pollution and the global warming problems, have promoted the development of nuclear power in China. However, due to the severe consequences and the negative impression of Fukushima accident, the public acceptance remains a big obstacle for the further development of nuclear power. Besides, the protests against nuclear fuel factory and nuclear power plants in China also indicate the low public acceptance towards nuclear power. This issue has attracted a lot of academic attentions and researches to identify different factors that influence nuclear public acceptance. However, few researches have questioned the primary sources that reflect these different factors. This paper will first briefly analyze the progress of public acceptance study and introduces a recent framework of public acceptance in China, which consists of trust, knowledge, benefits (economical and environmental benefits) and risks. Newspaper reports on nuclear power (from 2013 to 20th Nov of 2015) from three Chinese newspaper offices are selected to do content analysis. They are used to analyze the construction of such factors in the newspaper articles. This paper concludes with the finding that the coverage of economical benefits and environmental benefits are rather low and should be attached more importance. Newspaper reports should also include more basic knowledge of nuclear power to let the public better understand nuclear power. In addition, the increasing emphasis on the national benefits makes it a necessary subject that should be studied further in public acceptance in China.

A new Offshore Floating Nuclear Plant (OFNP) concept with high potential for attractive economics and an unprecedented level of safety is presented, along with an overview of work done in the area of security. The OFNP creatively combines state-of-the-art Light Water Reactors (LWRs) with floating platforms such as those used in offshore oil/gas operations, both of which are well-established technologies which can allow implementation on a time scale consistent with combating climate change in the near future. OFNP is a plant that can be entirely built within a floating platform in a shipyard, transferred to the site. OFNP eliminates earthquakes and tsunamis as accident precursors; its ocean-based passive safety systems eliminate the loss of ultimate heat sink accident by design. The defense of an OFNP poses new security opportunities and challenges compared to land-based plants. Such a plant can be more easily defended by virtue of the clear 360 degree lines of sight and the relative ease of identifying surface threats. Conversely the offshore plant is potentially vulnerable to underwater approaches by mini-submarines and divers. We investigate security considerations of the OFNP applicable to two potential plant options, an OFNP-300 with a 300 MWe reactor, and an OFNP-1100 with an 1100 MWe reactor. Three innovative security system approaches could be combined for the offshore plant. The first is a comprehensive detection system which integrates radar, sonar and unmanned vehicles for a long distance overview of the vicinity of the plant. The second approach is the use of passive physical barriers about 100 meters from the plant, which will force a fast-moving power boat to lose speed or stop at the barrier allowing the plant security force more time to respond. The third approach takes advantage of the offshore plant siting and the monthly or biweekly rotation of crew to reduce the total on-plant and onshore security force by using the off-duty security force on the plant as a reserve force. Through the use of these approaches, the OFNP-300 should be able to achieve a similar security cost (on a per Megawatt basis) as land-based plants of similar or somewhat larger power rating. Due to non-linear scaling of cost, the security cost of the OFNP-1100 has the potential to be reduced significantly compared to its land-based equivalents.

Taking into account the expected increase in global energy demands and increasing climate change issues there is a pressing need to develop new environmentally sustainable energy systems. Nuclear energy will play a big part in being part of the energy mix since it offers a relatively clean, safe and reliable source of energy. However, opportunities for building new generation nuclear systems will depend on their economic and safety attractiveness as well as flexibility in design to adapt to different countries and situational needs. Keeping these objectives in mind, a framework for international cooperation was set forth in a charter of Generation IV International Forum (GIF, 2002). The main design goals for the Generation IV nuclear system concept were to improve economic gains, enhance safety, extend sustainability, and strengthen proliferation resistance. To achieve high thermal efficiencies of up to 45–50%, the use of SuperCritical Fluids (SCFs) as working fluids in heat transfer cycles is proposed. An important step towards development of SCF applications in novel Generation IV Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) designs and in other industries; is to understand the thermal hydraulic behavior and prediction of Heat Transfer Coefficients (HTCs) at supercritical (SC) conditions. Heat transfer under SC turbulent conditions is generally very complex and is extremely sensitive to the test geometry and operational flow parameters. Detailed sets of experiments have been conducted around the world in tubes and other geometries with SCFs to study the basics of heat transfer. By variation of operational parameters and test geometries, fundamental heat transfer data sets are collected that will help in our understanding of SC heat transfer phenomena. Applications for SCFs are not limited to power industry; recent advancements have indicated the use of SCFs in a much wider range of applications due to its unique and attractive heat transfer characteristics. In this paper, proposed uses of SCFs are presented and basic concept of DHT within SCFs is analyzed.

Rapidly increasing energy and electricity demands, global concerns over the climate changes and strong dependence on foreign fossil fuels supplies are powerfully influencing greater use of nuclear power. In order to establish the viability of next-generation reactor concepts to meet tomorrow’s needs for clean and reliable energy production the fundamental research and development issues need to be addressed for the Generation-IV nuclear-energy systems. Generation-IV reactor concepts are being developed to use more advanced materials, coolants and higher burn-ups fuels, while keeping a nuclear reactor safe and reliable. One of the six Generation-IV concepts which will utilize thermal neutron spectrum is a Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR). This reactor concept uses a graphite-moderated core with a once-through uranium fuel cycle, using high temperature helium as the coolant. Because helium is naturally inert and single-phase, the helium-cooled reactor can operate at much higher temperatures, leading to higher efficiency. Current VHTR concepts will use fuels such as uranium dioxide, uranium carbide, or uranium oxycarbide. Since some of these fuels are new in nuclear industry and due to their unknown properties and behaviour within VHTR conditions it is very important to address these issues by investigate their characteristics within conditions close to those in VHTRs. This research can be performed in a research reactor with in-pile helium loop designed and constructed in Research Centre Rez, Ltd. The purpose of the High Temperature Helium Loop (HTHL) is to simulate technical and chemical conditions of VHTR’s coolant. The loop is intended to serve an as experimental device for fatigue and creep tests of construction metallic materials for gas-cooled reactors and it should be also employed for research in field of gaseous coolant chemistry. The loop will serve also for tests of nuclear graphite, dosing and Helium purification systems. Because the VHTR is a new reactor concept, major technical uncertainties remain relative to helium-cooled advanced reactor systems. This paper summarizes the concept of the HTHL in the Research Centre Rez Ltd., its design, utilization and future plans for experimental setup.

The world faces energy dilemma: excessive use of fossil fuels leads to increasing pressure on resources, environment and climate change, while reducing energy demands is impossible for maintaining and improving the quality of life. This dilemma could be alleviated from two aspects. One is to meet the energy demands as well as lower energy supply through smart energy management. The other is to develop carbon-free clean energy, in particular nuclear energy, to replace fossil fuels. Through smart energy management, the energy demands could be met by grade match, to meet the energy demands with the same grade energy resources. Some special types of reactors can be put into comprehensive utilization for above purposes. By coupling the gas turbine Modular High Temperature Gas-cooled Reactor (MHTGR) with the seawater desalination, the nuclear energy would be used as much as possible while the effectiveness of energy be promoted.

Environmental concerns, global warming and fossil fuel prices are creating a shift in the expectations of consumers and industries to move toward renewable energy resources. However, the inability to control the output of renewable resources, like wind and solar, results in operational challenges in power systems. The operational challenges of renewable resources can be met by energy storage systems. The energy storage systems scheduling can be used to control the effect of intermittent renewable energy resources. Furthermore, energy storage systems can be used for ancillary services, peak reduction, and mitigating contingencies in the distribution and transmission networks [1]. Distributed photovoltaic (DPV) rooftop panels are considered as renewable energy resources in this paper. Depending on the DPV size and solar irradiation, DPV adoption can create problems for the distribution network. In addition, utility companies have to pay different prices for electricity during different times of the day due to the dynamic electricity market. Therefore, the DPV adoption can be controlled with the help of real-time electricity price and the load profile. Facing these challenges, this paper presents an operational optimization algorithm for a Distributed Energy Storage (DES) system. The DES system presents a fleet of batteries connected to distribution transformers. The DES can be used for withholding DPV power before it is bid into the market. Withholding DPV generation represents a gaming method to realize higher revenues due to the time varying cost of electricity. Energy storage systems may be used to control DPV power variation and thus help distribution network operations [2]. The objective of this paper is to present a DES optimal economic control system to improve the DPV adoption in power distribution networks. The control system decisions depend on the load profiles, and the real-time Locational Marginal Price (LMP). Economic operation of the DES is a complex problem because of the time dependency of the battery capacity (where sufficient energy reserves must be maintained in case of power loss), the solar irradiation uncertainty, and the real-time electricity price variability. The mathematical approach used is the Discrete Ascent Optimal Programming (DAOP) algorithm. An advantage of DAOP is its assurance of convergence after a finite number of computational iterations.

The results of surveys conducted in some developed countries (the United States, Germany, and France) and in Japan showed that approximately 50% of the respondents considered nuclear power generation to be a cause of global warming. Therefore, it is important to investigate why a wide range of people lack the awareness that nuclear power generation is an effective means of preventing global warming and why approximately 50% of people think that nuclear power generation is a cause of global warming. In this research, it was investigated why people think that nuclear power generation is a cause of global warming. Factor analysis method was applied to data obtained from survey at Kansai area in Japan. Using the survey results, people’s awareness structure was analyzed to determine factors behind people’s perception that nuclear power generation is a cause of global warming and to identify ideas preventing people from recognizing nuclear power generation, which emits no carbon dioxide during power generation, as a means of preventing global warming. As a result, the misunderstanding, the thermal discharge and radioactive material etc. produced from a nuclear power plant promotes global warming, has influenced on this issue. It has become evident that behind such misunderstanding is a negative image of nuclear power. This negative image is a factor to decrease the evaluation that nuclear power is useful for preventing global warming regardless of the presence of the misunderstanding. It is believed that the negative image of nuclear power does not lead to direct association of nuclear power generation and global warming, but by the fear that the accident of the nuclear plant brings the environmental destruction, people evaluate that nuclear power generation is not effective for preventing global warming without grounds. Especially, the tendency is very strong in young people.

Due to global warming and high oil prices nuclear power is the most feasible solution for generating electricity. For the fledging nuclear power industry small and medium sized nuclear reactors (SMR’s) are instrumental for the development and demonstration of nuclear reactor technology. Due to the enhanced and outstanding safety features, these reactors have been considered globally. In this paper, first we have summarized the reactor design by considering some of the large nuclear reactor including advanced and theoretical nuclear reactor. Secondly, comparison between large nuclear reactors and SMR’s have been discussed under the criteria led by International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Thirdly, a brief review about the design and safety aspects of some of SMR’s have been carried out. We have considered the specifications and parametric analysis of the reactors like: ABV which is the floating type integral Pressurized water reactor; Long life, Safe, Simple Small Portable Proliferation Resistance Reactor (LSPR) concept; Multi-Application Small Light Water Reactor (MASLWR) concept; Fixed Bed Nuclear Reactor (FBNR); Marine Reactor (MR-X) & Deep Sea Reactor (DR-X); Space Reactor (SP-100); Passive Safe Small Reactor for Distributed energy supply system (PSRD); System integrated Modular Advanced Reactor (SMART); Super, Safe, Small and Simple Reactor (4S); International Reactor Innovative and Secure (IRIS); Nu-Scale Reactor; Next generation nuclear power plant (NGNP); Small, Secure Transportable Autonomous Reactor (SSTAR); Power Reactor Inherently Safe Module (PRISM) and Hyperion Reactor concept. Finally we have point out some challenges that must be resolved in order to play an effective role in Nuclear industry.

Nuclear power generation has become an increasingly attractive alternative in the global power market due to growing demand for electric power, increasing global competition for fossil fuels, concern over greenhouse gas emissions and their potential impact on climate change, and the desire for energy independence. Nuclear energy plays an integral role in providing carbon free energy for sustainable development of global electric power generation. Assuring the protection of people and the environmental is a prime consideration in the design, construction, and operation of nuclear power plants. Potential environmental and safety concerns must be carefully evaluated and addressed. In order to assure that the nuclear power plant designs are sufficiently robust, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (USNRC) requires that applicants for early site permits (ESP) and construction/operating licenses (COL) identify the most severe natural phenomena historically reported for the site and surrounding area to ensure sufficient design margin exists, considering the limited accuracy, quantity, and time in which the associated data has been collected. Because these permits are valid for a period up to 40 years, the potential impacts of climate change on the severity of natural phenomena, as it relates to the design basis and nuclear safety and environmental impacts are of increasing interest. Although no conclusive evidence or consensus of opinion is available on the long-term climatic changes resulting from human or natural causes, the USNRC has requested that climate change forecasts be considered for their potential affecting the most severe natural phenomena. The specific subject areas of concern include: • Extreme temperature and extreme precipitation (liquid & frozen) statistics – review 100 years of data around the site versus a review of the previous 30 years of data. • Extreme wind/basic wind speed – review previous 100 years of tropical cyclone data (including hurricanes) in the site vicinity versus previous 30 years of data. • Tornado – review of frequency and intensity trends and forecasts. • Drought – review of water availability / water supply during drought conditions and drought of record. • Stagnation Potential – review of conditions that would result in restrictive dispersion of greenhouse gas emissions. This paper examines the challenges and constraints in identifying and developing appropriate design- and operating-basis site/regional meteorological conditions while accounting for potential climate change during preparation of an ESP and/or COL. Because there is no regulatory guidance or quantitative acceptance criteria currently available, the methodology used to address climate change in a recent issued ESP will be discussed as an example.

Reactor thermal power uprate (Power uprate) of operating light water reactors has long successful experiences in many nuclear power plants in the United States of America and European countries since late 1970’s. And it will be also introduced in Japan soon. This paper mainly describes the outline of the attempt of five-percent reactor thermal power uprate of Tokai No.2 Nuclear Power Station (Tokai-2) operated by the Japan Atomic Power Company (JAPC). It will be the leading case in Japan. Tokai-2 is GE type Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) of 1100 MW licensed electric power output and it commenced commercial operation in November 28, 1978. Power uprate is an effective approach for increasing electric power output. And it is recognized as one of the measures for effective and efficient use of existing Japanese operating nuclear power plants. It can contribute to inexpensive and stable electric power supply increase. Especially “Stretch Power Uprate (SPU)” requires only minor equipment modification or component replacement. It is also a countermeasure against global warming. Therefore it is a common theme to be accomplished in the near future for both Japanese electric power companies and government. JAPC started feasibility studies on power uprate in 2003. And in 2007, JAPC established a plan to achieve five-percent power uprate in Tokai-2 and announced this project to the public. This is a leading attempt in the Japanese electric power companies and it is the first case under the current Japanese regulatory requirements. In this plan, JAPC reflected lessons learned from preceding nuclear power plants in the United States and European countries, and tried to make most use of the performance of existing systems and components in Tokai-2 which have been periodically or timely renewed by utilizing more reliable and efficient design. JAPC plans to submit application documents to amend current License for Reactor Establishment Permit shortly. It will contain a complete set of revised safety analysis results based on the uprated reactor thermal power condition. Successful introduction of Tokai-2 power uprate will contribute to the establishment of regulatory process for power uprate in Japan and following attempts by other Japanese electric power companies.

Welcome to the “Nuclear Renaissance”... The global nuclear renaissance and concerns over climate change were addressed by the keynote speakers at the 20 th anniversary of POWER-GEN International, December 2, 2008. J.M. Bernhardt, Jr., chairman, president and CEO of Shaw Group, opened his presentation by acknowledging that the nuclear renaissance is not something that might happen; it is happening now. He stated that “When greenhouse gasses are in the mix, he believed nuclear is where we need to go.” Additionally, Jacques Besnainou, president and CEO of Areva, Inc supported Bernhardt with the call for more investment in nuclear power. He stated that “nuclear power is not THE solution, but there is no solution without nuclear power. What Will it Take to Make the Global Nuclear Renaissance a Success? Must have the need... The Department of Energy (DOE) indicates U.S. energy consumption is expected to grow 1.5 percent a year over the next two decades, and should reach an increased 45% baseload need by 2030. Additionally, the gap between total worldwide energy production and demand will double over the next 15–20 years. Must have the will... Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI), and World Nuclear Association indicate that globally, 36 plants are currently under construction, 93 plants are on order or planned in 18 countries (30 in U.S.), and 219 projects are under consideration in 27 countries. Additionally, they indicate that the combination of low production costs, high reliability, safe operation and clean air benefits positions nuclear energy favorably to meet our baseload electricity needs today and for future expansion. Must have the commitment... Each of us who are members of the global nuclear community must have our core values embedded in a solid quality foundation. We exercise our commitment to quality daily by the application of our signature on documents, instructions, and drawings.

Even under the call for solutions to climate change and alternative energy sources to meet increasing energy demands, the imminent “nuclear renaissance” is debated by those who want to know the final destination of spent nuclear fuel. One of the alternatives to direct storage of spent fuel in a geological repository includes partial to full fuel reprocessing such that fission products such as actinides can be removed, as well as the recycling of plutonium and uranium into mixed oxide fuel (MOX). With the anticipated construction of ‘new build’ nuclear power plants (NPPs), as well as the continued operation of the existing fleet, we anticipate that the inventory of spent fuel destined for storage in Yucca Mountain (or similar) will continue to grow. Thus the U.S. DOE is promoting a sensible consideration of reprocessing, burning MOX in existing and near-terms LWRs and continuing R&D on sodium-cooled fast reactors (SFRs) for their eventual commercial introduction. However, countries that have chosen to reprocess are facing high costs and lingering political opposition, while others who have chosen not to reprocess equally face opposition to licensing and operating an adequate federal repository. This research continues ongoing research by the authors on existing and planned realization of NPPs and the associated fuel cycle. That is, we have to date developed models of the construction and decommissioning of NPPs in the U.S., developed an associated model that includes construction of reprocessing facilities, and finally, accounts for the mass flow within the partially closed fuel cycle. From early on, we included the gradual introduction of MOX-burning LWRs and SFRs into the existing and anticipated LWR fleet over the next 100 years. All models were created using Vensim, a software tool that facilitates development, analysis and compartmentalization of dynamic processes with feedback models. Our model has been benchmarked against the MIT and U. Chicago reports on the future of nuclear energy. The current work presents cost estimates and uncertainties assigned to the mass flow model to evaluate the cost of NPP-based electricity generation, with and without a fuel reprocessing. Preliminary results demonstrate that the high cost of reprocessing can be offset by the larger expense of having to construct ‘multiple’ Yucca Mountain-type repositories, under current NPP growth forecasts and insistence of the once-through fuel cycle. Details and results on various, sensible scenarios will be presented.

Avoiding CO 2 emissions while meeting global energy needs is a far greater challenge than most commentators and governments appreciate. Even the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has offered no scenario that would stabilize atmospheric levels. The capacity of the oceans to absorb CO 2 is limited to about 40% of the level of emissions in 1990. Shared equitably among the present-day world population, per capita emissions of 35% of the current European average would only return the world to 100% of 1990 emission levels. Yet world population will probably grow by 25% by 2050 and, between 1990 and 2007, global emissions increased by 29%. Our current global trajectory is hurtling us toward ever-higher levels, perhaps even disaster. Consequently, near-zero-emitting sources are the only approaches to energy generation that should be deployed. Nuclear power, with its immense energy density, is the only available source that qualifies for widespread deployment. Existing alternative options are not and cannot effectively contribute (see e.g. MacKay, 2008). The weakness in wind is the need for back-up and supplementation, not so much from its short-term fickleness but its seasonal variability. Carbon capture and storage would have to achieve far higher levels of capture than currently seem feasible. Hydroelectricity has limited remaining potential as well as needing careful deployment to avoid collateral emissions. Aggressive conservation and efficiency measures reduce but do not solve the growth in energy demand and usage. Global economic downturns provide temporary relief but huge social political pain, and energy supply security concerns remain unresolved issue for many countries, even today. Of course nuclear alone would face an overwhelming challenge. We shall need to deploy massive improvements in the efficiency with which energy is used. Solar power in various forms has promise and could have a substantial role at lower latitudes in consistently sunny areas though photovoltaic electricity is still a high-cost option. Geothermal and various forms of ocean-derived energy have development potential. However, we argue that worldwide deployment of 5000 to 10 000 nuclear reactors by 2050 is the only clearly accessible pathway to CO 2 stabilization that exists today. This will require extension of the resource beyond once-through cycles and so the deployment of advanced reactor types. But it is doable, it is affordable, and our planet must plan to accomplish this deployment.

The world is facing energy difficulties for the future, in terms of security of supply and climate change issues. Nuclear power is virtually carbon free and it contributes to energy security, being a quasi-domestic source. Whilst it cannot provide a complete answer to these challenges, it is certainly capable of providing a significant component of the answer. However, nuclear power remains controversial. In order to gain public acceptance, it is widely recognised that a number of key issues need to be addressed, amongst which is resolution of the high-level radioactive waste (HLW) (including spent fuel) disposal issue. This is an important issue for all countries with an existing nuclear programme, whether or not it is intended that nuclear power should be phased out or expanded — the waste already exists and must be managed in any event. It is equally important for countries planning a new nuclear power programme where none has previously existed. Since nuclear power was first developed over fifty years ago, HLW arisings have been stored as an interim measure. It is widely believed by experts (though not by many opponents of the nuclear industry, nor by the public) that deep geological disposal, after a reasonable cooling time in interim storage, is technically feasible and constitutes a safe option [1] at an acceptable cost. The total volume of HLW from nuclear reactors is relatively small. A key issue, however, is the time-scale for developing such a final disposal solution. Considerations of security and inter-generational equity suggest that geological disposal should be implemented as soon as possible irrespective of whether or not new arisings are created. The question of managing HLW is not necessarily related to the issue of building new nuclear power stations. However, many opponents argue that there has been insufficient demonstration of the long-term safety of deep geological disposal. The same opponents also argue that there should be a moratorium on building new nuclear power plants (NPPs) until the issue of long-term management of HLW is resolved. These arguments have a powerful influence on public opinion towards both the construction of a waste repository and the building of new NPPs. The intent of this paper (developed from the current OECD NEA study on “Timing of High Level Waste Disposal”) is to identify and discuss some of the factors influencing the timing of the implementation of a HLW disposal strategy and to demonstrate to decision makers how these factors are affecting country strategies, based on current experience. Determining an optimum timescale of HLW disposal may be affected by a wide range of factors. The study examines how social acceptability, technical soundness, environmental responsibility and economic feasibility impact on the timing of HLW disposal and can be balanced in a national radioactive waste management strategy taking the social, political and economic environment into account. There is clear evidence that significant fractions of the public still have serious misconceptions with respect to the issues surrounding nuclear waste. The nuclear industry, together with governments in those countries who would like a component of nuclear power in their energy mix, has a responsibility for and a significant challenge in presenting its case to the public.

Global energy consumption will at least double over the next fifty years due to population growth, increased consumption, and an urgent need to improve the standard of living in under-developed countries. Thirty percent of this growth will be for electricity. At the same time, carbon emissions must be significantly reduced to respond to concerns regarding global warming. The use of nuclear energy to meet this growing electricity demand without carbon emissions is an obvious solution to many observers, however real concerns over economics, safety, waste and proliferation must be adequately addressed. The issue is further complicated by the fact that developing countries, which have the most pressing need for additional electricity generation, have the least capability and infrastructure to deploy nuclear energy. Nevertheless, if the specific needs of developing countries are appropriately considered now as new generation reactors are being developed, and institutional arrangements based upon the fundamental principles of President Eisenhower’s 1953 Atoms For Peace speech are followed, nuclear energy could be deployed in any country. From a technical perspective, reactor safety and accessibility of special nuclear material are primary concerns. Institutionally, plant and fuel ownership and waste management issues must be addressed. International safety and safeguards authority are prerequisites. While the IAEA’s IMPRO program and the United States’ Generation IV programs are focusing on technical solutions, institutional issues, particularly with regard to deployment in developing countries, are not receiving corresponding attention. Full-service, cradle-to-grave, nuclear electricity companies that retain custody and responsibility for the plant and materials, including waste, are one possible solution. Small modular reactors such as the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor could be ideal for such an arrangement. While waste disposal remains a major obstacle, this is already true for numerous nuclear programs even in developed countries with limited geologically suitable formations. Fortunately, several organizations are currently pursuing international solutions to the nuclear waste disposal problem. While the capability to deploy nuclear energy in a specific country may not be desirable for a number of reasons, we should not develop nuclear hardware that can only benefit and serve technically and economically advanced countries. The potential benefits of nuclear energy are global, and we should not unduly limit that potential by inattention today to the requirements necessary for global deployment.

This paper outlines a range of scenarios describing what the world’s energy system might look like in the middle of the century, and what nuclear energy’s most profitable role might be. The starting point is the 40 non-greenhouse-gas-mitigation scenarios in the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2000). Given their international authorship and comprehensive review by governments and scientific experts, the SRES scenarios are the state of the art in long-term energy scenarios. However, they do not present the underlying energy system structures in enough detail for specific energy technology and infrastructure analyses. This paper therefore describes initial steps within INPRO (the International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles of the International Atomic Energy Agency) to translate the SRES results into a range of possible nuclear energy technology requirements for mid-century. The paper summarizes the four SRES scenarios that will be used in INPRO and the reasons for their selection. It provides illustrative examples of the sort of additional detail that is being developed about the overall energy system implied by each scenario, and about specific scenario features particularly relevant to nuclear energy. As recommended in SRES, the selected scenarios cover all four SRES “storyline families.” The energy system translations being developed in INPRO are intended to indicate how energy services may be provided in mid-century and to delineate likely technology and infrastructure implications. They will indicate answers to questions like the following. The list is illustrative, not comprehensive. • What kind of nuclear power plants will best fit the mid-century energy system? • What energy forms and other products and services provided by nuclear reactors will best fit the mid-century energy system? • What would be their market shares? • How difficult will it be to site new nuclear facilities? • Which are nuclear energy’s biggest competitors? • Which non-nuclear technologies can nuclear power complement? • What is the range of potential demand growth for new capacity? • How is demand growth distributed geographically around the world? Different scenarios imply different answers, which are then the starting point for estimating what future reactor users might require of reactor and fuel cycle designs around mid-century. These user requirements — in terms of economics, safety, proliferation resistance, waste, and environmental impacts — are intended to help establish key directions in which to encourage innovation. They are intended as a useful input to managers designing R&D strategies targeted on the anticipated energy system needs, and other relevant needs, of mid-century.

Key drivers for the increasing use of nuclear energy are the need to mitigate global warming and the requirement for energy security. Nuclear energy can be applied not only to generate electricity but also as a heat source. Moreover, nuclear energy can be applied for hydrogen as well as water production. The application of nuclear energy to oil processing and biomass production is studied in this paper.