Topics: Cascades (Fluid dynamics) , Large eddy simulation , Simulation , Blades , Stability , Computational fluid dynamics , Flow (Dynamics) , Prisms (Optics) , Turbines , Turbomachinery

Design Guidelines for Axial Turbines Operating With Non-Ideal Compressible Flows

Andrea Giuffre’, Matteo Pini

GT 2020; V02CT35A002https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14209

Abstract

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Topics: Compressible flow , Design , Turbines , Flow (Dynamics) , Compressibility , Fluids , Engineering simulation , Pressure , Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations , Simulation

Influence of Swirl Distribution on Blade Shape and Performance of a Centrifugal Impeller

Qin Cui, Guoliang Qin, Lei Li, Cheng Jia, Yi Wang

GT 2020; V02CT35A003https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14360

Abstract

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Topics: Blades , Design , Impellers , Shapes

Innovative Design, Structural Optimization and Additive Manufacturing of New-Generation Turbine Blades

Andrea Amedei, Enrico Meli, Andrea Rindi, Benedetta Romani, Lorenzo Pinelli, Federico Vanti, Andrea Arnone, Gianluigi Benvenuti, Marco Fabbrini, Nicolò Morganti

GT 2020; V02CT35A004https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14418

Abstract

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Topics: Additive manufacturing , Design , Fluid structure interaction , Structural optimization , Topology , Turbine blades

Numerical Study of the Fan Blades Design and Operating Parameters for a High Bypass Ratio Engine

Huoxing Liu, Zhongfu Tang, Igor Shirokov

GT 2020; V02CT35A005https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14425

Abstract

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Topics: Blades , Design , Engines , Fluids

Near Wall Resolution Requirements for High-Order FR/CPR Method for Wall-Resolved Large Eddy Simulations

Rathakrishnan Bhaskaran, Gustavo Ledezma

GT 2020; V02CT35A006https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14432

Abstract

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Topics: Large eddy simulation , Resolution (Optics) , Turbulence , Polynomials , Boundary layers , Computer simulation , Engineering simulation , Flat plates , Flow (Dynamics) , Simulation

Large Eddy Simulation of a Transonic Linear Cascade With Synthetic Inlet Turbulence

Ettore Bertolini, Paul Pieringer, Wolfgang Sanz

GT 2020; V02CT35A007https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14461

Abstract

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Topics: Cascades (Fluid dynamics) , Large eddy simulation , Turbulence , Blades , Boundary layers , Engineering simulation , Flow (Dynamics) , Heat transfer , Inflow , Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations

Influence of Purge Temperature Variation on the Performance of Turbine Center Frames

Patrick Jagerhofer, Andreas Peters, Emil Göttlich, Wolfgang Sanz, Federica Farisco

GT 2020; V02CT35A008https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14502

Abstract

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Topics: Temperature , Turbines , Flow (Dynamics) , Engines , Ducts , Computational fluid dynamics , Cooling , Pressure , Simulation , Turbine components

A State-of-the-Art CFD Setup for Axial Compressors: Details and Validation

Lorenzo Cozzi, Filippo Rubechini, Andrea Arnone, Savino Depalo, Pio Astrua, Andrea Schneider, Marcello Benvenuto

GT 2020; V02CT35A009https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14507

Abstract

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Topics: Compressors , Computational fluid dynamics , Modeling , Turbomachinery , Flow (Dynamics) , Gas turbines , Surges , Boundary-value problems , Clearances (Engineering) , Combustion

Adaptive Detached Eddy Simulation of End-Wall Flow in a Linear Compressor Cascade

Zifei Yin

GT 2020; V02CT35A010https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14526

Abstract

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Topics: Cascades (Fluid dynamics) , Compressors , Eddies (Fluid dynamics) , Flow (Dynamics) , Simulation , Viscosity , Pressure , Blades , Boundary layer turbulence , Corners (Structural elements)

Effects of the Large Eddy Simulation Calculation Parameters on Prediction of Profile Loss in an Axial Cascade at Off-Design Incidence

Yuntae Lee, Susumu Teramoto, Takahiko Toki, Koji Okamoto

GT 2020; V02CT35A011https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14554

Abstract

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Topics: Cascades (Fluid dynamics) , Design , Large eddy simulation , Turbulence

Steady State Modeling of Unsteady Wake Induced Transition Effects in a Multistage Low Pressure Turbine

Alexander Führing, Dragan Kožulović, Christoph Bode, Matthias Franke

GT 2020; V02CT35A012https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14558

Abstract

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Topics: Modeling , Pressure , Steady state , Turbines , Wakes , Boundary layers , Computation , Reynolds number , Simulation , Aircraft engines

Numerical Resolution of Compressor Corner Separation Problem

Wei Sun, Zhong-Nan Wang, Liping Xu

GT 2020; V02CT35A013https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14587

Abstract

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Topics: Compressors , Corners (Structural elements) , Resolution (Optics) , Separation (Technology) , Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations , Flow (Dynamics) , Turbulence , Boundary layers , Cascades (Fluid dynamics) , Computational fluid dynamics

Analysis of the Exit Flow Angle and Characteristics of Flow in Axial Turbine Cascades

Narmin B. Hushmandi, Per Askebjer, Magnus Genrup

GT 2020; V02CT35A014https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14605

Abstract

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Topics: Computational fluid dynamics , Flow (Dynamics) , Turbines

Improvement of a Tip Clearance Loss Prediction Model Based on Geometric Variation

Jiancheng Zhang, Donghai Jin, Zefeng Li, Xingmin Gui

GT 2020; V02CT35A015https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14613

Abstract

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Topics: Blades , Clearances (Engineering)

Reynolds Number and Roughness Effects on Turbocompressor Performance: Numerical Calculations and Measurement Data Evaluation

Fabian Dietmann, Michael Casey, Damian M. Vogt

GT 2020; V02CT35A016https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14653

Abstract

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Topics: Reynolds number , Surface roughness , Flow (Dynamics) , Compressors , Design , Energy dissipation , Machinery

Template-Based Hexahedral Mesh Generation for Turbine Cooling Geometries

Muting Hao, Feng Wang, Joshua Hope-Collins, Max E. Rife, Luca di Mare

GT 2020; V02CT35A017https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14660

Abstract

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Topics: Cooling , Mesh generation , Turbines , Algorithms , Ducts , Cushioning materials , Turbine blades

A Comparison of VOF and Euler-Euler Approaches in CFD Modelling of Two-Phase Flows With a Sharp Interface

Luc Bertolotti, Richard Jefferson-Loveday, Stephen Ambrose, Evgenia Korsukova

GT 2020; V02CT35A018https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14681

Abstract

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Topics: Computational fluid dynamics , Modeling , Two-phase flow , Bearings , Flow (Dynamics) , Shear flow , Fluids , Momentum , Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations , Water

On the Formulation of Nonreflecting Boundary Conditions for Turbomachinery Configurations: Part I — Theory and Implementation

Christian Frey, Daniel Schlüß, Nina Wolfrum, Patrick Bechlars, Maximilian Beck

GT 2020; V02CT35A019https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14684

Abstract

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Topics: Boundary-value problems , Simulation , Turbomachinery , Unsteady flow

Integration of Machine Learning and Computational Fluid Dynamics to Develop Turbulence Models for Improved Turbine Wake Mixing Prediction

Harshal D. Akolekar, Yaomin Zhao, Richard D. Sandberg, Roberto Pacciani

GT 2020; V02CT35A020https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14732

Abstract

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Topics: Computational fluid dynamics , Machine learning , Turbines , Turbulence , Wakes , Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations , Model development , Computer programming , Diffusion (Physics) , Modeling

Prediction of Tip Leakage Vortex Dynamics in an Axial Compressor Cascade Using RANS Analyses

Martina Ricci, Roberto Pacciani, Michele Marconcini, Andrea Arnone

GT 2020; V02CT35A021https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14797

Abstract

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Topics: Cascades (Fluid dynamics) , Compressors , Dynamics (Mechanics) , Leakage , Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations , Vortices , Blades , Design , Flow (Dynamics) , Turbulence

Numerical Simulation of Pressure Loss and Heat Transfer Characteristics for Additively Manufactured Channels

Bryan Arko, Chad Iverson, Nicholas Staudigel

GT 2020; V02CT35A022https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14803

Abstract

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Topics: Additive manufacturing , Computer simulation , Heat transfer , Pressure , Surface roughness , Computational fluid dynamics , Cooling , Modeling , Reynolds number , Friction

Parameter Extension Simulation of Turbulent Flows in a Compressor Cascade With a High Reynolds Number

Yan Jin

GT 2020; V02CT35A023https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14809

Abstract

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Topics: Cascades (Fluid dynamics) , Compressors , Large eddy simulation , Reynolds number , Simulation , Turbulence

Modification of DDES Based on SST kω Model for Tip Leakage Flow in Turbomachinery

Yanfei Gao, Yangwei Liu

GT 2020; V02CT35A024https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14851

Abstract

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Topics: Delay differential equations , Leakage flows , Turbomachinery , Turbulence

On the Development of a Synchronized Harmonic Balance Method for Multiple Frequencies and its Application to LPT Flows

Javier Crespo, Jesús Contreras

GT 2020; V02CT35A025https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14952

Abstract

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Topics: Flow (Dynamics) , Boundary-value problems , Simulation , Fourier transforms , Interpolation , Robustness , Rotors , Stators , Annulus , Blades

Multi-Fidelity Surrogate-Based Optimization of Transonic and Supersonic Axial Turbine Profiles

Nassim Razaaly, Giacomo Persico, Pietro Marco Congedo

GT 2020; V02CT35A026https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14972

Abstract

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Topics: Optimization , Turbines , Computational fluid dynamics , Fluids , B-splines , Cascades (Fluid dynamics) , Design , Flow (Dynamics) , Geometry , High pressure (Physics)

Spectral Analysis of an Aeronautical Lean Direct Injection Burner Through Large Eddy Simulation

M. Carreres, L. M. García-Cuevas, J. García-Tíscar, M. Belmar-Gil

GT 2020; V02CT35A027https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-14998

Abstract

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Topics: Emission spectroscopy , Large eddy simulation , Spectroscopy , Swirling flow , Combustion chambers , Acoustics , Computational fluid dynamics , Flow (Dynamics) , Combustion , Computer simulation

Uncertainty Quantification of Spalart-Allmaras Turbulence Model Coefficients for Compressor Stall

Xiao He, Fanzhou Zhao, Mehdi Vahdati

GT 2020; V02CT35A028https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15014

Abstract

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Topics: Compressors , Turbulence , Uncertainty quantification , Uncertainty , Airfoils , Flow (Dynamics) , Rotors , Delays , Monte Carlo methods , Navier-Stokes equations

Investigation of Turbulence Modeling and Harmonic Balance Methods Towards Accurately Predicting Compressor Flow Fields

Liam McManus, Justin Hodges, Ilyas Beary

GT 2020; V02CT35A029https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15027

Abstract

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Topics: Compressors , Flow (Dynamics) , Modeling , Turbulence , Computational fluid dynamics , NASA , Simulation , Turbomachinery , Design methodology , Engines

Averaging for High Fidelity Modelling: Towards Large Eddy Simulations in Multi-Passage Multi-Row Configurations

L. He

GT 2020; V02CT35A030https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15157

Abstract

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Topics: Blades , Computation , Flow (Dynamics) , Flow simulation , Large eddy simulation , Modeling , Resolution (Optics) , Scalars , Spacetime , Turbomachinery

Analysis of Transonic Bladerows With Non-Uniform Geometry Using Spectral Method

Feng Wang, Luca di Mare

GT 2020; V02CT35A031https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15161

Abstract

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Topics: Geometry , Flow (Dynamics) , Manufacturing , Blades , Design , Engines , Turbomachinery , Aerodynamic noise , Computation , Errors

Numerical Investigations Into the Oil Capture Efficiency of a Curve-Bladed Scoop System

Joshua Lee, Arun Prabhakar, Kathy Johnson

GT 2020; V02CT35A032https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15257

Abstract

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Topics: Aircraft engines , Bearings , Blades , Computational fluid dynamics , Cooling , Engines , Flow (Dynamics) , Fluids , Geometry , Jets

Redesign of the TG20 Heavy-Duty Gas Turbine to Increase Turbine Inlet Temperature and Global Efficiency

Mirko Baratta, Francesco Cardile, Daniela Anna Misul, Nicola Rosafio, Simone Salvadori, Luca Forno, Marco Toppino

GT 2020; V02CT35A033https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15269

Abstract

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Topics: Computational fluid dynamics , Cooling , Gas turbines , Heat transfer , Temperature , Turbines

A Numerical Approach to Centrifugal Compressor Stage Flow Path Design Synthesis and Optimization

Vlad Goldenberg, John M. Gorman, Terrence Simon, Ephraim M. Sparrow

GT 2020; V02CT35A034https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15290

Abstract

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Topics: Compressors , Computational fluid dynamics , Design , Flow (Dynamics) , Optimization , Turbomachinery

Numerical Simulation of the Influence of Steam Ingestion on Compressor Stability Using a Corrected Correlation Method

Haoyang Xu, Jun Hu, Baofeng Tu

GT 2020; V02CT35A035https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15334

Abstract

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Topics: Compressors , Computer simulation , Stability , Steam

Using Feature-Based Mesh Adaptation to Improve the Adjoint Optimisation of Transonic Compressor Blades

Alistair John, Guglielmo Vivarelli, Ning Qin, Shahrokh Shahpar

GT 2020; V02CT35A036https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15351

Abstract

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Topics: Blades , Compressors , Optimization , Design , Flow (Dynamics) , Shock (Mechanics) , Geometry , Separation (Technology) , Simulation , Turbomachinery

On the Formulation of Nonreflecting Boundary Conditions for Turbomachinery Configurations: Part II — Application and Analysis

Nina Wolfrum, Patrick Bechlars, Maximilian Beck, Christian Frey, Daniel Schlüß

GT 2020; V02CT35A037https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15358

Abstract

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Topics: Boundary-value problems , Turbomachinery , Flow (Dynamics) , Waves , Algorithms , Computational fluid dynamics , Acoustics , Blades , Computation , Design

Large Eddy Simulation of the Flow Past a Circular Cylinder at Super-Critical Reynolds Numbers

Mohammad H. B. Ahmadi, Zhiyin Yang

GT 2020; V02CT35A038https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15393

Abstract

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Topics: Circular cylinders , Flow (Dynamics) , Large eddy simulation , Reynolds number , Cylinders , Resolution (Optics) , Engineering simulation , Shear (Mechanics) , Simulation , Turbulence

Part 1: A Swirl Vane Generation Code for Fuel Spray Nozzles

Thomas Andreou, Craig White, Konstantinos Kontis, Shahrokh Shahpar, Nicholas Brown

GT 2020; V02CT35A039https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15414

Abstract

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Topics: Fuels , Nozzles , Sprays , Blades , Combustion , Computer software , Curve fitting , Design , Flow (Dynamics) , NACA airfoils

Part 2: Design Optimisation Strategies for a Fuel Spray Nozzle

Thomas Andreou, Craig White, Konstantinos Kontis, Shahrokh Shahpar, Nicholas Brown

GT 2020; V02CT35A040https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15431

Abstract

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Topics: Design , Fuels , Nozzles , Optimization , Sprays , Emissions , Aircraft , Aircraft engines , Aviation , Blades

Evaluation of the Capacity of RANS/URANS/LES in Predicting the Performance of a High-Pressure Turbine: Effect of Load and Off Design Condition

Jérôme Dombard, Florent Duchaine, Laurent Gicquel, Nicolas Odier, Kevin Leroy, Nicolas Buffaz, Sébastien Le-Guyader, Jacques Démolis, Stéphane Richard, Thomas Grosnickel

GT 2020; V02CT35A041https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15447

Abstract

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Topics: Design , High pressure (Physics) , Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations , Stress , Turbines , Databases , Industrial design , Large eddy simulation , Pressure , Rotation

Quantitative Evaluation and Optimization of Feeding-Back Previous Cycles Information for CFD Periodic Convergence

Jesus Contreras, Javier Crespo

GT 2020; V02CT35A042https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15621

Abstract

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Topics: Computational fluid dynamics , Cycles , Optimization

A Robust Implementation of a Reynolds Stress Model for Turbomachinery Applications in a Coupled Solver Environment

David Roos Launchbury, Luca Mangani, Ernesto Casartelli, Francesco Del Citto

GT 2020; V02CT35A043https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15639

Abstract

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Topics: Stress , Turbomachinery , Anisotropy , Flow (Dynamics) , Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations , Stability , Turbulence , Compressors , Eddies (Fluid dynamics) , Modeling

Recirculation Zones During the Centrifugal Compressor Surge Cycle: CFD Simulation

Michał Kulak, Filip Grapow, Grzegorz Liśkiewicz

GT 2020; V02CT35A044https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15803

Abstract

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Topics: Compressors , Computational fluid dynamics , Cycles , Simulation , Surges

Implicit GPU Accelerated Numerical Simulations via the Use of Ghost Cell Immersed Boundary Method

Piotr Zacharzewski, Richard Jefferson-Loveday

GT 2020; V02CT35A045https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15844

Abstract

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Topics: Computer simulation , Graphics processing units , Computational fluid dynamics , Engineering simulation , Hardware , Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations , Simulation , Turbomachinery , Architecture , Design

Modelling of Partially Wetting Liquid Film Using an Enhanced Thin Film Model for Aero-Engine Bearing Chamber Applications

K. Singh, M. Sharabi, R. Jefferson-Loveday, S. Ambrose, C. Eastwick, J. Cao, A. Jacobs

GT 2020; V02CT35A046https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15845

Abstract

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Topics: Aircraft engines , Bearings , Liquid films , Modeling , Thin films , Wetting , Flow (Dynamics) , Film thickness , Cooling , Drying

A Multi-Fidelity Aero-Thermal Design Approach for Secondary Air Systems

Dario Amirante, Nicholas J. Hills, Paolo Adami

GT 2020; V02CT35A047https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15922

Abstract

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Topics: Design , Fluids , Metals , Simulation , Cavities , Engines , Flow (Dynamics) , Heat transfer , Annulus , Blades

Integration of an Open Source Blade Geometry Generator Using a Physics Based Parameterization With the Engineering Sketch Pad

Mayank Sharma, John F. Dannenhoffer, III, Justin Holder, Mark G. Turner

GT 2020; V02CT35A048https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15943

Abstract

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Topics: Blades , Generators , Geometry , Physics , Design , B-splines , Pressure , Airfoils , Computation , Finite element methods

The Limit Inlet Temperature of Refrigeration Centrifugal Compressor to Avoid Phase Change

Duan YaFei, Tang YongHong, Jin ZhiHong, Zou HanSen, Xi Guang

GT 2020; V02CT35A049https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-15972

Abstract

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Topics: Compressors , Refrigeration , Temperature , Flow (Dynamics) , Fluids , Blades , Compression , Condensation , Nozzles , Refrigerants

Optimization of an Air Turbo Starter Considering its Joint Work With an Auxiliary Power Unit

Grigorii Popov, Vasilii Zubanov, Oleg Baturin, Daria Kolmakova, Yulia Novikova, Andrei Volkov

GT 2020; V02CT35A050https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-16034

Abstract

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Topics: Gas turbines , Optimization , Torque , Turbines , Turbochargers , Engines , Computational fluid dynamics , Design , Modeling , Algorithms

Evaluation of the Rotor Temperature Distribution of an Automotive Turbocharger Under Hot Gas Conditions Including Indirect Experimental Validation

Christopher Zeh, Ole Willers, Thomas Hagemann, Hubert Schwarze, Joerg R. Seume

GT 2020; V02CT35A051https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-16077

Abstract

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Topics: Computational fluid dynamics , Heat transfer , Rotors , Temperature , Temperature distribution , Turbochargers , Bearings , Flow (Dynamics) , Fluid films , Heat

The Effect of Blade Count on Body Force Model Performance for Axial Fans

Palak Saini, Jeff Defoe

GT 2020; V02CT35A052https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-16176

Abstract

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Topics: Blades , Fans , Cooling , Flow (Dynamics) , Inflow , Turbomachinery , Aircraft engines , Computer simulation , Jet engines , Kinetic energy

The Feasibility of an Euler-Lagrange Approach for the Modelling of Wet Steam

Tim Wittmann, Christoph Bode, Jens Friedrichs

GT 2020; V02CT35A053https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-16199

Abstract

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Topics: Modeling , Steam , Nucleation (Physics) , Condensation , Flow (Dynamics) , Nozzles , Drops , Turbines

Adjoint-Based Aeroelastic Design Optimization Using a Harmonic Balance Method

Nitish Anand, Antonio Rubino, Piero Colonna, Matteo Pini

GT 2020; V02CT35A054https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-16208

Abstract

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Topics: Design , Optimization , Blades , Damping , Flow (Dynamics) , Cascades (Fluid dynamics) , Compressors , Computation , Fluids , Flutter (Aerodynamics)

Model Validation of an Euler-Based 2D-Throughflow Approach for Multistage Axial Turbine Analysis

Sebastian Föllner, Volker Amedick, Bernhard Bonhoff, Dieter Brillert, Friedrich-Karl Benra

GT 2020; V02CT35A055https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-16229

Abstract

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Topics: Flow (Dynamics) , Model validation , Nozzles , Turbines , Blades , Simulation , Computation , Fluids , Flux (Metallurgy) , Shock (Mechanics)

A Model of Inlet Circumferential Fluctuation in Compressor Cascades

Zixuan Yue, Zefeng Li, Donghai Jin, Xingmin Gui

GT 2020; V02CT35A056https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-16266

Abstract

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Topics: Compressors , Flow (Dynamics) , Design , Aerospace industry , Blades , Computer simulation , Mach number , Modeling , Turbomachinery

Design Space Exploration of Stagnation Temperature Probes via Dimension Reduction

Ashley D. Scillitoe, Bryn Ubald, Pranay Seshadri, Shahrokh Shahpar

GT 2020; V02CT35A057https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-16277

Abstract

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Topics: Design , Dimensions , Probes , Temperature , Manufacturing , Mach number , Uncertainty , Boundary-value problems , Engines , Entropy

Large-Eddy Simulation of an Integrated High-Pressure Compressor and Combustion Chamber of a Typical Turbine Engine Architecture

Carlos Pérez Arroyo, Jérôme Dombard, Florent Duchaine, Laurent Gicquel, Nicolas Odier, Gorka Exilard, Stéphane Richard, Nicolas Buffaz, Jacques Démolis

GT 2020; V02CT35A058https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2020-16288

Abstract

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Topics: Combustion chambers , Compressors , Gas turbines , High pressure (Physics) , Large eddy simulation , Blades , Diffusers , Simulation , Computation , Pressure